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THIS  BOOR  IS  DUE  ON  THE  DATE 
INDICATED  BELOW  AND  IS  SUB- 
JECT TO  AN  OVERDUE  FINE  AS 
POSTED  AT  THE  CIRCULATION 
DESK. 


^   ^ 


FEEDING  ANIMALS 


A    PRACTICAL    WORK 


THE  LAWS  OF  ANIMAL  GROWTH 


^ECIALLY     APPLIED    TO 


THE  REARING  AiYD  FEEDING  OF  HORSES,  CA  TTLE, 
DAIRY  COWS,  SHEEP  AND  SWINE. 


By 

ELLIOTT   W.  STEWART, 

ONE    OF    THE     EDITORS     OF    THE    NATIONAL     LIVE    STOCK    JOURNAL",     LATE 

NON-RESIDENT     PROFESSOR     OF     THE     PRINCIPLES     O. 

AGRICULTURE    IN    CORNELL    UNIVERSITY. 

WITH     ILLUSTRATIONS. 


THIRD    EDITION 


LAKE    VIEW: 
PUBLISHED    BY    THE    AUTHOR, 

Erie  County,  New  Yohk. 
1886. 


Copyright   by   the   Author. 

All  Rights  Reserved. 

1883. 


BUFFALO : 
Baker,  Jones  &  Co.,  Printers  and  Binders. 


PREFACE. 


Thirty  years  ago,  to  recruit  his  health,  the  author 
removed  from  professional  labor  in  the  city  to  a  farm 
in  the  country.  Having  a  liking  for  stock,  he  naturally 
turned  his  attention  early  to  this  branch  of  farming. 
And  not  being  able  to  find  much  printed  instruction 
upon  the  subject  of  feeding  any  class  of  stock,  he 
began  early  to  experiment  for  himself  and  to  keep  a 
record  of  his  experiments. 

And  as  these  materials  grew  upon  his  hands,  the 
author  conceived  the  idea  of  writing  and  publishing 
a  book  upon  subjects  discussed  in  this,  unless  some 
one  should  anticipate  him  in  this  needed  service  to  the 
great  live  stock  interest.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the 
author  has  taken  leisurely  to  his  work  ;  and  it  would 
give  him  great  pleasure  if  he  could  believe  that  his 
work  is  as  ripe  and  complete  as  the  years  it  has  been 
growing  upon  his  hands. 

The  first  methodical  preparation  of  this  work  began 
in  January,  1877,  in  a  series  of  articles  published  in  the 
National  Live  Stock  Journal  under  the  general  title  to 
this  book — Feeding  Animals, — signed,  Alimeiitation. 


4  PREFACE. 

These  extended  to  41  articles,  and  mapped  out  the 
frame-work  of  the  book.  But  the  author  drew  also, 
to  some  extent,  upon  articles  which  he  had  written 
for  the  Country  Gentleman,  and  Rural  Neiv  Yorker, 
and  perhaps  other  papers,  using  these  in  the  details  of 
the  book. 

The  first  three  chapters  were  written  last,  as  neces- 
sary preliminary  knowledge  to  the  full  understanding 
of  the  discussions  of  the  work. 

Chemical  research  has  thrown  much  light  upon  the 
feeder's  art,  and  the  author  has  endeavored  to  give  the 
latest  and  fullest  analyses  of  grasses,  forage  plants, 
grains,  and  by-products  of  grains,  used  as  stock  foods, 
to  be  found  in  any  one  book  extant. 

Stock  barns  have  become  so  important  an  element 
in  successful  stock-feeding,  that  the  author  has  given  a 
pretty  thorough  discussion  of  this  topic,  with  full  illus- 
trations of  the  octagonal  form  of  barn.  The  principles 
of  feeding  are  discussed  in  a  separate  chapter ;  then 
each  class  of  stock  is  taken  up  separately,  and  the 
method  of  feeding  and  management  from  birth  to 
commercial  age  fully  explained.  A  chapter  on  Dairy 
Cattle  goes  into  the  selection  and  management  of  this 
very  important  class  of  farm  stock. 

The  author  has  not  ventured  into  the  discussion 
of  veterinary  remedies,  contenting  himself  w^ith  the 
description  of  a  few  simple  water  remedies,  endeav- 
oring to  impress  the  reader  with  the  necessity  of 
preventing  diseases  rather  than  of  curing  them. 


PREFACE.  5 

The  aim  of  the  author  throughout  has  been  to 
discuss  all  matters  from  the  practical  rather  than  the 
theoretical  stand-point ;  and  his  work,  such  as  it  is,  is 
herewith  presented  to  the  public,  hoping  that  its 
suggestions  may  lighten  the  labor  and  increase  the 
profits  of,  at  least,  some  who  intelligently  cultivate 
the  great  live  stock   specialty. 

The  author  takes  pleasure  in  acknowledging  his 
obligations  to  many  writers  upon  the  topics  here  dis- 
cussed, but  he  has  endeavored  to  give  due  credit  to 
each  for  the  matter  thus  used. 

Ease  of  reference  being  a  matter  of  great  importance 
in  a  book  of  varied  contents,  the  author  has  endeavored 
to  make  a  very  full  analytical  index,  which  will  enable 
the  reader  easily  to  find  any  matter  discussed  in  the 
book. 


CONTENTS. 


<^^ 


INTRODUCTION.  p 

Number  of  Horses— Cattle— Sheep— Swine— Capital  invested— Importance  of 
understanding  all  the  Economies  of  Feeding— Science  of  Feeding 15 


CHAPTER  I. 


Composition  of  Animal  Bodies— Organic  Elements-Inorganic  Elements-The 
Blood— Its  Composition— Fleshy  Parts— Composition— Skin,  Hair,  Horn, 
Hoof,  Wool,  Fat— Composition— Bones— Composition— Composition  of  the 
Bodies  of  Ten  Animals— Proportions  of  the  various  parts  of  Cattle,  Sheep 

19 


and  Swine 

CHAPTER  n. 


A  Nutrient— Ration— Nitrogenous  Nutrients— Protein— Vegetable  Albumen- 
Casein  and  Fibrine-Flesh-forming  Principles-Non -nitrogenous  Nutrients 
-Carbo-hydrates— Cellulose-Effect  of  Heat  upon  Woody  Fiber-Effect  of 
Acid  upon  it-Digestibility  of  Cellulose-Starch-Dextrine-Sugars-Tlie 
Pectin  Substances  — Fats -Inorganic  Nutrients-Phosphates-Magnesia— 
Soda,  Chlorides  of  Sodium-Oxide  of  Iron-Potash-Respiratory  Food- 
Principles  of  Respiration— Carbonic  Acid— Albuminoids-Hydrogen— Gluten 
—Albumen— Legurain— Muscles  and  Cartilages— Earthy  Phosphates— Saline 
Substances— Sulphates ^ 

CHAPTER  III. 

Digestion-Digestion  begins  in  the  Mouth-Mastication,  Salivary  Glands  and 
the  Saliva— Mouth— Tongue— Palate-Roof  of  Mouth— Cheeks— Parotid 
Gland— Maxillary  or  Sub-maxillary  Gland— Sub-lingual  Gland— Molar  Glands 
—The  Labial  and  Palatine  Glands— Piyalin-Stomach  of  SoUpeds-Stomach 
of  Horse— Peritoneum— Gastric  juice— Pylorus— Stomachs  of  Ruminants 
and  their  Functions— Flesh  Feeders— First  Stomach— Second  Stomach— 
(Esophagean  Demi-canal— Third  Stomach— Fourth  Stomach— FuncUons— 


8  CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Rumination— Conditions  Essential— Use  of  Fourth  Stomach— GaBtric  Diges- 
tion—Intestinal Digestion— Coecum— The  Colon— The  Rectrum— Intestines 
of  Ruminants— Intestines  of  the  Pig— Other  Organs  annexed  to  the  Di- 
gestive Canal— The  Liver— Pancreas— The  Spleen— Circulation— The  Pulse 
—In  Disease— Jerking  Pulse— Intermittent — Unequal— Palpitation— Respi- 
ration—The  Nostrils— Trachea—Bronchi-Thorax— The  Lungs— Respira- 
tory Action  of  the  Skin— Animal  Heat— Urinary  Organs— The  Kidneys- 
Ureters— Bladder— Excretions— Respiratory  Products— Carbon  Excreted— 
Excretion  of  Ash  Constituents— Of  Potasji— Value  of  Manure 45 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Stock  Barns— Shelter  for  Cattle— Should  be  used  to  Shelter— Form  of  Barn- 
Long  Parallelogram— Square— Octagon— Duo-decagon— Sex-decagon— Octa- 
gon Basement— Basement  laid  out  in  a  Circle— Self-cleaning  Stables— Plat- 
form—Grating— Saving  of  Manure- Durability— Moderate  Cost— The  Octa- 
gon adapted  to  all-sized  Farms— A  Fifty-foot  Octagon— Schedule— Granary 
—Basement  Wall  for  Stables— Concrete  Wall— Preparations  for  laying  out 
Wall— Hov^r  to  lay  out  an  Octagonal  Wall— Constructing  Boxes  for  the  Wall 
— Proportions  for  Water-lime  Concrete— New  way  of  Building  Long  Barns 
—Great  Economy  and  Convenience  of  this  Improvement— Barns  for  1,000 
Head  of  Cattle— Octagonal  Eight-winged  Barn— Square-cross  Barn— Details 
of  Construction— Basement  for  Cattle— Laying  out  Basement— Sheep  Barns 
—Double  Sheep  Rack— Sheep  Shelter 84 

CHAPTER  V. 

Principles  of  Alimentation— Effect  of  Food  upon  Flavor  of  Flesh— Deer  Domes- 
ticated—How Food  will  change  tiie  Flavor  of  Flesh— High-flavored  Milk- 
Animal  Dependent  upon  its  Food  for  Quality— Early  Maturity— Full  Devel- 
opment—Effect of  Careful  and  Judicious  Breeding— In  the  Natural  State — 
Profitable  Feeding  must  be  done  before  Maturity— Instructive  Experiments 
—Study  the  Nature  of  the  Animal  we  Feed— Improper  Feeding— How  to 
Feed  Young  Animals— Average  Composition  of  Milk— Formation  of  Mus- 
cles, Nerves,  Brain,  Skin,  Hair,  Hoofs  and  Horns— Choice  of  Foods  to  re- 
place Milk— Table  of  Grains— Corn  an  Improper  Food  to  be  given  Alone- 
Wheat  Middlings  preferable  to  Bran  for  the  Young 126 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Stock  Foods— The  Basis  of  German  Values  of  Food— Analysis  of  American  Cat- 
tle Foods— Chemical  Composition  at  Different  Stages— Description  of 
Grasses— Desmodium— Japan  Clover— Mexican  Clover— Satin  Grass— Shra- 
der's  Grass— Bermuda  Grass— Ciab  Grasses— Texas  Millet— Quack  Grass- 
Wire  Grass — Gania  Grass — Grama  Grass— Average  Composiliuii  and  Money 
Value  of  Feeding  Stulls,  by  Dr.  Wolft',  for  Germany— Comments  on  Tables 
—Tables  of  Values— Waste  Products— Corn  Starch  Feed— Brewers'  Grains 
—Malt  Sprouts— Meat  Scrap — Fish  Scrap— Quality  of  Timothy  and  Clover- 
Must  be  Cut  before  Blossoming  143 


CONTENTS.  fl 

CHAPTER  \^I. 

Page. 
Soiling— Saving  Land— How  Waste  of  Food  is  Caused— One  Acre  equal  to 
Three— Saving  Fences— Saving  Food— Weeds  and  Thistles  utUized— Saving 
Manure— Etfect  upon  Health  and  Condition— Effect  of  Soiling  upon  Milk- 
Soiling  Experiments— Continuous  Milk  Production— Eflect  on  Meat  Produc- 
tion—Soiling and  Grain  Feeding  Combined— The  Great  Need  of  Eastern 
Farms— Objections  to  Soiling— Labor— An  Experiment— Labor  of  Repairing 
Fences  Saved— Cost  of  Labor  for  One  Hundred  Head— What  One  Man  can 
Do— Soiling  Crops— Winter  Rye— Red  Clover— Orchard  Grass— Lucerne- 
Timothy  and  Large  Clover— Alsike,  Clover  and  Timothy— Green  Oats— Peas 
and  Oats— Common  Millet— Hungarian  Grass— Italian  Millet— Vetch— Fod- 
der Corn— Sorghum— How  to  Use  the  Green  Crops— Soiling  Horses— Soil- 
ing Cattle— Rack  for  Cattle— Cattle  Tie— Soiling  Cows— Soiling  Sheep- 
Portable  Hurdle  Fence — Best  Plan  for  Raising  Lambs — Soiling  Extermi- 
nates Weeds— How  to  Introduce  Soiling— It  should  be  Carefully  Considered 
-Winter  Soiling— Ensilage— The  System  Tested— Enables  Carrying  More 
Stock— Many  Things  in  Favor— Summer  Growth  all  the  Year  round— Silos- 
Plan  of  Silo — Triple  Silo — Building  the  Silo — Preparing  the  Concrete — How 
to  Build  with  Quicklime— Progress  of  Ensilage  in  the  United  States- 
Ensilage  Congress — Cost  of  Ensilage — Feeding  Animals — Ensilage  as  a  Com- 
plete Ration— Table  of  Fodder  Plants— Red  Clover  as  an  Ensilage  Crop- 
Ensilage  Crops— Winter  Rye— Millet— Peas  and  Oats— Timothy  and  Late 
Clover— Sorghum  Cane— Storing  several  Ensilage  Crops  together— Ration 
for  Milk— Cutting  Crops  and  Filling  Silo 167 

CHAPTER  YIII. 

Cattle-Feeding— How  to  Feed  the  Yonng  Calf— Flax-seed  Gruel,  how  made— 
Skim-milk  Ration  for  Calf— Flax-seed  and  Oat  Meal  Boiled,  mixed  with 
Milk— Experiments— Cost  of  a  Calf  at  One  Year— Whey  Ration  for  the 
Calf— Prof.  Voelcher's  Analysis  of  Whey— What  is  Needed  to  Build  the 
Bones— Hay-tea  Rations  for  C.ilves— What  Age  for  Beef— Early  Maturity- 
Baby  Beef— Cost  of  a  "Baby  Bullock  "■— Cost  of  American  Baby  Steer- 
Quality  of  Young  Beef— The  Economy  of  Young  Beef — Effect  of  Age  upon 
Gain  pei-  day— Chicago  Fat  Stock  Shows— Tables— Cost  of  Production— 
Tables— English  View  of  Cost  of  Beef— Fattening  Oxen— Cost  of  Gain- 
Value  of  Manure  of  Fattening  Cattle— Cost  of  Beef— Steaming  the  Rations 
-Whole  Cost  of  the  Bullock— Growing  Cattle  for  Beef— Home-bred  Cattle 
—Summer  Feeding— Management  of  Pastures— Blue  Grass— Wire  Grass- 
Meadow  Grass— Meadow  Fescue — Sheep  Fescue — Orchard  Grass — Herds 
Grass— Sweet-scented  Vernal  Grass— Temporary  Pastures— What  Grasses 
may  be  Used— Full  Feeding  in  Summer— Corn  as  a  Single  Diet— Cattle- 
feeding  in  Cold  Weather— Warm  Stables— Out  Door  Feedings— German 
Feeding  Standard— Cattle  Rations— Tables— Rations  for  Milch  Cow— Clover 
and  Corn  Rntions  for  Fattening  Cattle— Waste  Products  in  Cattle  Rations- 
Rations  for  Faltenmg  Cattle— Linseed  and  Cottonseed  Cake— Rations  for 
Oxen  at  Hard  Work— How  to  Feed  the  Corn  Crop— Mode  of  Cutting  and 
Handling— Improvement  of  the  Corn  Ration— Beef  to  the  Acre  of  Corn— 
Condimental  Foods— Analysis— Feeding  on  Small  Farms— Garden  Truck 
Farms  233 


1 0  COKTENTS. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Pack. 

Feeding  Dairy  Cattle— Selecting  Dairy  Cows— Besides  Fine  Proportions  they 
must  have  Milking  Qualities— A  Thoroughbred  Male  should  always  be 
Used— Size  of  Dairy  Cows— Large  or  Small  Cows  the  Best— The  Respective 
D;iiries  of  Messrs.  Boies,  Bronson  and  Blftdgett- Food  and  Size  of  Dairy 
Cows— With  Common  Feed  and  Care— With  Best  Feed  and  Care— Milk 
Ration  at  Eldena— Tables— Large  Cows  are  more  Economical  Milk  Pro- 
(iiicer?- Feeding  Dairy  Cattle— Special  Feeding  for  Milk— Experiments  of 
Feeding  Heifer— German  Experiments— The  Cow  as  a  food  producer— Com- 
position of  6.000  lbs.  of  Milk— How  Fat  is  Produced— Variety  of  Food  for 
Milk— English  Practice— Fatten  Cows  in  Milk— Value  of  Cow  Manure- 
Food  Production— American  Rations  for  Milk— Tables— Waaler  for  Milch 
Cows— Pasturing  Dairy  Cows— Variety  of  Grasses— Extra  Food  to  Fertilize 
Pastures 317 

CHAPTER  X. 

Horses— Horse  kept  for  his  Muscle— Colt— iMilk  Ration  for  Colt— Food  for  the 
Dam— No  Objection  to  Light  Work— Colt  should  be  Handled  Daily— Weight 
and  Growth  of  Foals— Tables— Bout^singaulfs  Experiments— Exercise  for 
Colts— Food  for  Horses — Youatfs  English  Ration— German  Experiments- 
Meadow  Hny  fully  Digested— Crude  Albuminoids— Non-nitrogenous  Con- 
stituents—Digestibility* of  Winter  Wheat  Straw— Concentrated  Feeding 
Stuffs— Result  of  Experiments— Standard  Ration— Dr.  W^olff's  Experi- 
ments-Rations for  Light  Work— For  Heavy  Work— Practical  Rations— 
Nations  for  Omnibus  Horses— Ration  of  all  Corn  Meal  and  Hay— Grass, 
Peas  and  Oats  Preferred— Bulky  Food— Beans  more  Concentrated  than 
Oats— Should  Feed  One-third  Beans  to  Two-thirds  Oats— Oats  Contain  as 
much  Bulk  of  Fiber  as  Meal  when  Ground— Fibrous  Food  Necessary— Pea 
Meal  and  Hay  Adapted  for  Work— Corn  Meal  for  Horses— Must  be  Fed 
Carefully— Table  of  Foods— Malt  Sprouts  as  a  Food— Tables  of  Rations  for 
Horses  of  1,000  pounds-  W^eight— Stage  Companies'  Method  of  Feeding— 
Not  Much  Salt  Used— Tables  of  Rations  of  Different  Lines— Stable  Feeding 
during  the  Winter— Feeding  for  Fast  Work— Colts  should  be  Fed  Well  and 
Change  of  Food  given  Often- The  Various  Grains  for  Variety  of  Food- 
Oats— Barley— Rye— Millet— Meal— Peas— The  Vetch— The  Colt  should  be 
Handled  at  Frequent  intervals,  and  should  have  Confidence  in  his  Trainer.  361 

CHAPTER  XI. 

g]ieep— They  must  be  Bred  for  Mutton  as  well  as  Wool— The  General  Improve- 
ment of  Sheep  in  ;ill  Countries— Sheep  Feeding  in  New  Jersey— The  Method 
of  Pushing  them  to  Early  Market— Old  System  of  Slow  Growth  and  Late 
Maturity  Abandoned— The  Double  Income— Six  Sheep  Kept  in  Place  of 
One  Cow— Early  Maturity— Difference  between  Scanty  and  Full  Feeding- 
Selection  of  Sheep  for  Breeding— Mutton  should  be  the  First  Consideration. 
Wool  the  Second— The  Best  must  be  Selected,  and  the  Defective  Weeded 
Out— The  Result  of  Crossing  Southdowns  and  Merinos— Summer  Feeding 
of  Small  Flocks— Bakeweirs  Method  of  Breeding— Hurdle  Feeding- Mov- 
able Hurdle  Fence  Necessary— Fertilizing  Land  by  Feeding  Sheep  upon  it— 


CONTENTS. 


11 


Paok. 

Compensation  for  Food  in  Manure  — Experiments  with  Sheep  — Tables  of 
Nitrogen  and  Ash  Constituents— Composition  of  Solid  and  Liquid  Excre- 
ment of  Sheep  Fed  on  Hay— Table  of  Foods— Value  of  Solid  and  Liquid 
Excrement— An  Experiment— Sheep  on  Worn-out  Lands— How  Deterio- 
rated Lands  may  be  Improved— Feeding  Green  Crops  on  the  Land— Winter 
Rye— Winter  Vetch— Vetch  Second  to  Clover— Peas  as  a  Pasture  Crop- 
Peas  will  Flourish  on  a  Variety  of  Soils— Oats  are  an  Important  Crop— Mil- 
let for  Pasture— Roots  for  Sheep  Feeding— Turnips  and  Beets— Rape- 
Ensilage  for  Winter  Feeding— Managing  a  Flock— Regularity  of  Feeding— 
Experiments— English  Sheep  Feeding— Experiments  with  Roots— Grain  and 
Grass— Feeding  Young  Lambs—  German  Experiments  in  Sheep  Feeding— 
Table— Before  Shearing— Cutting  and  Cooking  Fodder  for  Sheep— Experi- 
ment with  25  Medium-sized  Sheep— Another  Experiment  with  300  Sheep— 
Cost  of  Steaming 400 

CHAPTER  Xn. 

Swine— Products  of  Pig  Exported— Care  of  Breeding  Sows— Clover  and  Grass 
proper  Food  for  Pigs— The  Sow's  Milk  Richer  tlian  the  Cow's— Weight  of 
Pigs  at  Birth— Milk  Yielded  by  Dam— Rations  for  Yonng  Pigs— Corn  Meal 
Mixed  with  Milk— Feeding  Whey  to  Pigs— Grass  as  a  Part  of  the  Ration- 
Soiling  System  for  Swine— Pig  in  Winter— Corn  Meal  as  Pig  Food— Swine 
House— Dr.  Stetson's  Explanations  of  his  Piggery— Another  Plan  of  Swine 
Honse— A  Self-cleaning  Pen— Cooking  Hog  Food— Method  of  Feeding- 
Arrangement  for  Applying  Steam— No  Storing  Period— Fattening  Period- 
Selecting  Pigs  for  Fattening— Philosophy  of  Cooking  Food— Double  Value 
of  Meal  by  Cooking— Will  it  Pay  to  Cook  for  Hogs?— Must  be  Fed  in  a 
Warm  Atmosphere 458 

CHAPTER  Xin. 

Water  Remedies  —  Uses  of  Water  in  the  Diseases  of  Cattle  — The  Udder 
Inflamed— Fever  and  Inflammation— Garget— Puerper.il  or  Milk  Fever- 
Water  Treatment  for  Horses— Wounds— Bruises— Sprains —  Simple  Cut 
Wounds— Sprained  Ankle— Treatment  for  Colic— Food  Medicines 493 

APPENBIa.. 

American  Ensilage  in  England— Transporting  Ensilage  in  Casks— Succulent 
Food  Produces  a  Sound,  Even  Staple  of  Wool— Voelcker's  Analysis  and  Re- 
port on  Maize  and  Rye  Ensilage— Efl"ect  of  Ensilage  on  Havemeyer's  Large 
Herd  of  Jerseys— Rye  Ensilage  Superior  to  Corn— Experiments  at  Hough- 
ton Farm  with  Ct)rn  Ensilage  vs.  Dry  Food 5(  2 


12  CONTENTS. 

APPENDIX  TO  THIRD  EDITION. 

Deflnitiont—Albaminoids— Carbohydrates 534 

Fastening  Cattle  in  the  Stable— Stanchions— Chains  and  Staples— Strap  and 
Snap  on  Cow's  Neck— Chain  Without  Staples— Cow  Should  have  Freedom 
of  Position  in  Lying  Down 514 

Watering  Cows  In  Stable— Wooden  Trough  Best— Water  given  at  abont  60°— 
Cow  may  Help  Herself  at  Pleasure 516 

Improvement  of  Breed  by  Feeding— All  Breeds  Capable  of  Improvement,  and 
Feeding  the  best  Meane— Bakewell  Improved  the  Long  Horns  by  Feeding 
— Experiment  of  the  Author— Two  Scrub  Heifers  and  a  Bull  the  Basis- 
Each  Generation  Improved— Fourth  Generation  more  than  Doubled  with 
Production— Became  Uniform  in  Size,  Color,  etc 519 

Preparing  Food  for  a  Large  Stock— Mixing  Cylinder— Mixing  all  by  Machin- 
ery—Various Forms  of  Steam  Boxes— Rotary  Steam  Box— Rotary  Box 
may  be  used  for  Mixing  without  Steaming— Steam  Box  made  of  Iron 524 

Cost  of  Good  Beef— Cost  of  Steer  3  Years  Old— American  Fat  Stock  Show 
Furnished  a  Basis  to  Show  Cost  of  Beef— Table  of  Ages,  Weight,  etc  — 
Summary  of  the  Whole  -Gain  in  Periods— Cost  of  Production— Tablen  of 
Cost  in  Periods— The  Third  Year  Costs  Nearly  as  Much  as  First  and 
Second  Years— Cheapest  Beef  at  20  to  24  Months 529 

Building  Stables  under  Old  Barns- Method  of  Raising  and  Putting  under 
Concrete  Wall— Boxing  for  Concrete  Wall— Cost  for  Different  Sized  Barns  535 

Improvement  of  Dairy  Cows  for  Butter— All  Breeds  will  Respond  to  Improved 
Feedlne— The  Jersey  and  Holstein-Friesian  have  made  Great  Improve- 
ment Here— A  Developed  Cow  Maintains  her  Improvement— Effect  of 
Feeding  upon  Quality  of  Milk— Several  Cows  Mentioned  in  Illustration- 
Is  the  Greatest  Yield  the  Cheapest?— The  Largest  Production  Should  be 
the  Cheapest— Princess  2d,  Mary  Anne  of  St.  Lambert,  and  10  other  16-lb. 
Cows  Mentioned— Analyzed  Rations— Skillful  Feeding  Gives  the  Greatest 
Yield  at  the  Least  Proportional  Cost 537 


INTEODUOTIOK. 


The  live  stock  interest  of  the  United  States  has  ex- 
panded so  rapidly  during  the  last  two  decades  and  has  now 
reached  such  proportions  as  to  lead  every  other  agricultural 
industry.  In  fact,  it  may  be  said  that  most  other  branches 
of  farming  are  merely  incidental  to  the  great  live  stock 
industry — that  is,  all  our  cereal  grains  and  grasses,  except 
wheat  and  rice,  are  raised  with  a  special  reference  to  their 
value  as  food  for  animals. 

That  the  importance  and  value  of  this  great  interest 
in  agriculture  may  be  apparent,  we  will  glance  at  the 
statistics  of  each  of  its  specialties,  giving  only  the  numbers 
and  value  of  each  class  of  live  stock,  without  considering 
their  annual  income  : 

HORSES  AND   MULES. 
1840.  1850.  1860.  1870.  1880. 

Horses 4,000,000      4,336,719      6,249,174      8,702,000      12,000,000 

Value  in  1880 $740,000,000 

Mules 335,669         559,331      1,151,148      1,342,311        2,000,000 

Value  in  1880 $140,000,000 


Total  value,  horses  and  mules $880,000,000 

These  figures  follow  closely  the  census  reports  and  those 
made  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  these  periods. 

CATTLE. 

1850.                  1860.                  1870.  1880. 

Milch  Cows 6,3a5,094        8,728,852        10,023,000  13,433,000 

In  1880  the  number  must  reach  12,000,000,  value $322,392,000 

Other  cattle 11,993,763      16,911,475        18,348,581  23,982,560 

And  must  now  reach  35,000,000,  value $481,686,080 


Total  value  of  cattle $803,078,080 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

SHEEP. 

1850.                                   mi).                                 18T0.  1880. 

21,732,229                       22,471,275                      28,477,951  40,000,000 

Value  of  sheep $95,600,000 

SWINE. 

1840.                        1S50.                       1860.                         1870.  1880. 

26,301,298             30,354,213             33,512,8()7             20,457,500  47,683,951 

Value  of  swine $224,114,500 

Total  value  of  these  four  classes  of  live  stock $2,002,792,5^0 

This,  over  two  thousand  millions,  is  the  invested  capital, 
and  the  yearly  production  is  more  than  one  thousand 
millions  of  dollars.  We  have  from  two  to  three  times  the 
number  of  cattle,  in  proportion  to  population,  as  compared 
with  the  principal  countries  of  Europe,  and  from  three  to 
six  times  as  many  swine  in  proportion  to  population  ; 
nearly  three  times  the  proportional  number  of  horses  of 
France,  the  German  states  or  England.  Russia  is  the  only 
country  approximating  the  United  States  in  the  proportion 
of  horses.  England,  France  and  Germany  equal  the 
United  States  in  the  proportional  number  of  sheep. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  live  stock  industry  of  this 
country  is  already  very  great,  but  the  small  proportion  of 
our  land  yet  improved  shows  that  live  stock  production  is 
capable  of  almost  indefinite  extension ;  and  that  this  exten- 
sion must  depend  largely  upon  the  intelligence  and  practical 
knowledge  with  which  the  business  is  pursued.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  a  small  saving  in  the  cost  of  production  will 
amount  to  very  great  figures  when  applied  to  such  enor- 
mous aggregates.  And  when  we  consider  the  complicated 
nature  of  the  animal  system,  and  that  the  growth  of  the 
animal  depends  upon  the  supply  of  appropriate  food,  it 
becomes  apparent  that  the  successful  prosecution  of  this 
business  depends  upon  a  sound  theoretical  and  practical 
knowledge  of  the  relation  of  food  to  animal  growth.  And 
yet  when  a  novice,  desirous  of  acquiring  this  knowledge, 
seeks  aid  from  books  which  treat  systematically  and  prac- 


INTRODUCTION.  ^^ 


tically  upon  this  most  important  subject,  ho  finds  only 
fragmentary  hints  here  and  there  in  books  and  agricultural 
journals.  He  will  find  books  upon  breeds  of  cattle,  horses, 
sheep  and  swine— books  upon  the  philosophy  of  breeding— 
but  upon  the  philosophy  and  practice  of  feeding  animals 
he  will  find  nothing  complete,  even  for  a  single  class  of 
animals  It  is  true  we  may  find  a  very  good  exposition  of 
the  German  experiments  in  Dr.  Armsby's  Manual  of  Cattle 
Feeding  but  these  experiments  are  not  sufficiently  broad 
to  cover'the  whole  field,  and  have  not  yet  been  practically 
adapted  to  our  needs.  They  are  well  worthy  of  our  careful 
study,  and  we  shall  endeavor  to  show  the  extent  of  then- 
application  to  American  cattle  feeding. 

As  all  farmers,  from  time  immemorial,  have  been  in  the 
habit  of  feeding  more  or  less  animals,  it  has  been  taken 
for  granted  that  this   knowledge  came  by   instinct,  and 
required  no  study  to  obtain.     When  a  superior  animal  was 
produced,  an  explanation  was  always  sought  in  the  breed- 
it  was  always  charged  to  the  blood.    When  anything  is 
now  said   concerning   the  management  of  those   famous 
breeders  who  developed  the  Long-horns  and  the  Short-horns 
from  the  inferior  animals  they  began  with,  their  skill  and 
crenius  in   selecting  the  points  to  be  improved  and   the 
animals  to  be  coupled,  representing  these  in  greatest  per- 
fection, are  always  dwelt  upon  with  the  highest  admiration. 
Little  else  is  mentioned.     They  forget  the  grand  requisite 
of  success,  without  which  these  celebrated  breeders  would 
have  been  little   distinguished    above  their    neighboring 
farmers,  and  that  is— feeding.    It  may  be  laid  down  as  an 
axiom,  that  breeding  alone  can  produce  nothing  beyond 
what  is  inherent   in   the  animals  coupled  and  their  an- 
cestors.    Something  never  comes  from  nothing.     It  is  food 
and  management  that  makes  a  beautiful  specimen  of  any 
strain  of  blood.     A  skillful  feeder  may  often  grow  a  more 
perfect  individual   animal   out  of    a  three-quarter  blood 


16  INTRODUCTIOK. 

Short-hom  than  an  indifferent  feeder  will  out  of  the 
longest  and  most  fashionably  pedigreed  Short-horn. 

Darwin  expresses  the  opinion  that  food  is  one  of  the 
most  powerful  causes  of  variation  in  animals,*  and  when 
an  improvement  is  thus  begun  by  judicious  feeding  it  may 
be  perpetuated  by  breeding  ;  but  feeding  leads  the  improve- 
ment. This  position  does  not  undervalue  pedigree,  for  it 
takes  a  long  effort  of  both  breeding  and  feeding  to  establish 
the  fixed  characteristics  of  the  Short-horns,  or  other  pure 
breeds  ;  but  it  is  folly  to  magnify  the  pedigree  extrava- 
gantly, and  forget  the  essential  agency  that  established  the 
improvement  and  made  the  pedigree  valuable.  But  all 
this  is  gradually  changing,  and  farmers  are  beginning  to 
see  the  importance  of  closely  studying  the  effect  of  food 
upon  the  animals  they  rear  and  feed. 

The  Germans  have  felt  the  want  of  knowledge  upon  this 
subject,  and  have  been  diligently  experimenting  upon  it, 
especially  for  the  last  fifteen  years.  They  are  assisting  in 
laying  a  foundation  for  the  science  of  feeding,  and  the 
experiment  stations  of  this  country,  we  trust,  will  soon 
be  working  in  the  same  direction. 

The  author,  from  extensive  observation  among  stock 
raisers  and  feeders,  believes  that  a  practical  work  upon 
feeding  animals,  which  shall  use  only  so  much  of  scientific 
formula  as  is  necessary  to  a  proper  understanding  of  the 
subject,  is  now  more  needed  than  upon  any  other  branch 
of  agriculture.  And  it  has  been  his  primary  object,  in  the 
preparation  of  this  book,  to  discuss  every  topic  from  a 
practical  standpoint,  adding  to  the  personal  experience 
of  the  author  all  well-established  data  and  experiments 
of  the  most  intelligent  investigators.  Science  and  practice 
must  go  hand-in-hand.  Happily,  the  prejudice  of  the 
farmer  against  science  in  his  calling  is  fast  dying  out ;  and 
the  scientific  investigator  cordially  welcomes  the  practical 

*  Animals  and  Plants,  vpl.  2,  p.  309. 


INTRODUCTION.  17 

information  of  the  most  accurate  farmers,  and  bases  his  de- 
ductions largely  upon  the  facts  which  they  have  established. 

Our  farm  animals  are  kept  with  a  view  to  use  or  profit. 
It  is,  therefore,  of  the  highest  importance  that  the  food 
consumed  should  produce  the  best  result  in  growth  or 
product. 

To  aid  the  reader  in  understanding  the  value  of  the 
different  foods,  the  chemical  constituents  of  each  is  given 
from  analyses  by  the  best  chemists  of  this  country  and 
Europe ;  and  added  to  this,  all  the  most  rehable  experiments 
in  feeding,  both  in  this  country  and  England,  together 
with  the  German  experiments  to  determine  the  digestibility 
and  nutritive  value  of  the  ingredients  in  each  food  com- 
monly employed  in  growing  and  fattening  animals,  are 
given  and  explained.  These  German  experiments  are  the- 
most  important  contribution  to  the  science  of  feeding 
during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century.  And  these  German 
tables,  in  connection  with  the  numerous  feeding  trials  given 
for  each  class  of  stock,  it  is  hoped  will  enable  the  practical 
feeder  to  fully  comprehend  the  comparative  and  economical 
value  of  each  class  of  foods  he  desires  to  employ. 

Animal  physiology  is  so  far  treated  and  illustrated  as  to 
give  a  general  insight  into  the  process  of  digestion  in  the 
different  classes  of  farm  stock  ;  and  the  principles  of 
animal  hygiene  so  far  considered  as  to  suggest  the  general 
mode  of  preventive  treatment  to  maintain  the  health  of 
animals. 

As  shelter  is  an  important  item  in  the  economical  man- 
agement of  stock  in  many  of  our  states,  the  subject  of  the 
construction  of  barns  and  basement  stables,  for  all  purposes 
of  stock-keeping,  is  discussed  and  illustrated. 

The  new  system  of  ensilage  appears  to  have  so  many 
important  advantages  in  preserving  all  the  succulent  quali- 
ties and  digestibility  of  the  grasses  and  leguminous  plants, 
and  to  render  practical  the  application  of  the  soiling  system 


18  INTRODUCTION. 

to  all  parts  of  the  country— placing  the  cold  and  the  mild 
climates  upon  nearly  equal  advantage— that  it  is  thought 
worthy  of  a  full  statement  of  all  its  good  points,  illustrated 
with  plans  of  silos,  and  with  practical  directions  for  build- 
ing the  same  in  the  most  economical  manner,  from  the 
various  materials  found  in  different  localities. 


FEEDING  ANIMALS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

COMPOSITION^  OF   ANIMAL   BODIES. 

That  the  reader  may  have  a  clear  understanding  of  the 
philosophy  of  growing  animals,  and  of  the  office  to  be 
performed  by  the  food,  we  deem  it  necessary  to  give  a  short 
preliminary  explanation  of  vegetable  and  animal  bodies. 

The  true  relation  of  animal  to  vegetable  life  is  not  so 
well  comprehended  by  the  mass  of  farmers  as  it  should  be, 
and  a  concise  statement  of  these  principles  will  assist  them 
in  understanding  their  application  to  the  various  subjects 
discussed  in  this  book. 

The  natural  function  of  plants  or  vegetables  is  to  absorb 
the  inorganic  matter  of  soil  and  air,  and  convert  it  into 
organized  structures  of  a  complex  character.  Plants  use 
only  mineral  food,  and  advance  this  by  organizing  it  into 
a  higher  form.  Their  food  consists  mostly  of  water,  car- 
bonic acid  and  ammonia.  Water  is  composed  of  oxygen 
and  hydrogen ;  carbonic  acid  is  made  up  of  carbon  and 
oxygen  ;  and  ammonia  of  hydrogen  and  nitrogen.  These 
four  elements  are  called  the  organic  elements,  because  they 
compose  the  bulk  of  all  plants.  The  combustible  portion 
of  all  plants  and  animals  is  made  up  of  these  organic 
elements  ;  the  incombnstible  part  is  formed  of  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  chlorine,  potassium,  sodium,  calcium,  magne- 


20  -FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

sium,  silicon,  and  iron.  These  are  the  principal  elements. 
Sometimes  iodine,  bromine,  and  a  few  other  simple  element- 
ary bodies  are  found  in  plants  and  animals.  Vegetable  and 
animal  substances  are  often  looked  upon  as  very  different 
in  their  composition,  but  the  most  important  of  these 
elements  are  quite  identical  in  vegetables  and  animals. 
Vegetable  albumen,  which  is  often  found  coagulated  in 
boiling  vegetable  juices,  is  identical  with  the  albumen  of 
the  white  of  eggs.  The  fibrin  of  blood  is  in  no  wise  differ- 
ent from  the  fibrin  of  wheat  and  many  other  cereal  grains; 
and  the  curd  or  casein  of  milk  is  the  same  as  the  legumen 
of  peas  and  beans.  And  these  substances  are  all  converti- 
ble into  each  other  within  the  animal  organism.  We  shall 
consider  the  seuarate  elements  of  vegetable  foods  in  the 
next  chapter. 

It  was  formerly  supposed  that  animals  had  the  power  of 
changing  and  combining  the  elements  of  their  food  into 
such  form  as  their  necessities  required  ;  but  it  is  now 
believed  that  they  do  not  possess  the  power  of  even  com- 
pounding the  substance  of  the  muscles  from  its  elements, 
and  can  only  appropriate  from  vegetables  what  they  find 
ready  formed  for  their  use — that  the  vegetable  must  elabo- 
rate, and  the  animal  can  merely  appropriate.  Food,  then, 
must  contain  all  the  elements  of  animal  bodies.  It  will 
therefore  be  profitable  to  consider  the  composition  of  animal 
bodies — the  blood,  the  flesh,  or  muscles,  the  fat,  the  bones, 
the  skin,  hair  or  wool,  horn,  etc. 

1st.  The  blood,  on  an  average,  contains  water,  79  per 
cent.,  and  20  per  cent,  of  organic  matters,  consisting  prin- 
cipally of  a  nitrogenous  substance  analagous  to  fibrin, 
which  separates  in  long  strings  when  blood  is  beaten  with 
a  stick  immediately  after  being  drawn,  and  some  albumen, 
which  remains  dissolved  in  the  liquid  part  of  the  blood  or 
swum.  On  heating,  the  albumen  coagulates  and  separates 
into  whitish  flakes,  like  the  white  of  eggs,  with  which  it  is 


COMPOSITION   OP  ANIMAL    BODIES.  21 

identical  in  composition,  also  some  fatty  matter  and  a  trace 
of  sugar.  The  ash  of  blood  is  almost  one  per  cent.,  and  is 
rich  in  chloride  of  sodium,  or  common  salt,  and  contains 
a  large  proportion  of  the  phosphates  of  soda,  lime  and 
magnesia. 

To  the  eye  the  blood  appears  to  be  a  homogeneous  red 
liquid,  but  on  microscopic  examination  is  found  to  consist 
of  a  colorless  fluid — called  liquor  sanguinis,  or  plasma  of 
the  blood — holding  in  suspension  very  great  numbers  of 
globular  bodies— the  colored  and  colorless  corpuscles  of  the 
blood.  The  colored  greatly  outnumber  the  colorless  cor- 
puscles; and  the  former  consist  largely  of  coloring  matter 
—haemoglobin— which  gives  blood  its  red  color.  The 
shade  of  color  depends  upon  the  amount  of  oxygen.  Ar- 
terial blood  contains  oxyha3moglobin,  which  is  a  bright  red, 
crystaline  body,  having  a  similar  composition  to  albumin- 
oids, but  with  the  addition  of  about  0.45  per  cent,  of  iron, 
from  which  the  color  is  supposed  to  be  derived.  We  here 
give  a  tabular  view,  exhibiting  the  relative  composition  of 
the  blood  corpuscles  and  the  liquor  sanguinis,  as  deter- 
mined by  Schmidt  and  Lehman  : 

1,000  Parts  of  Blood  Corpuscles  1,000  Parts  of  Liquor  Sanguinis 
Contain  :  Contain  : 

Water ...Gs^-^.OO  Water 902  00 

Solid  constituents 812.00  Solid  constituents ]'.  y?!  lu 


Specific  gravity 1  OSS .  5        Specific  gravity    1028 

Fibrin 4  05 

Haemoglobin  and  proteids  of  Proteids,  chiefly  serum-aibii- 

the  stroma 29S.97  min *  78  S4 

Fat  2.31        Fat '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. iT'i 

Extractive  matters 2.(50  Extractive  matters. .                  3  94 

Mmeral  substances h .  12        Mineral  substances 8 .  55 


Chlorine          1  .fi.S6        Chlorine 3  044 

Sulphur  trioxide 0 .  066        Sulphur  trioxide 0  155 

Phosphorus  pentoxide 1 .  134        Phosphoru;   pentoxide 0  191 

Potassium 3.328        Potassium 0  3'^3 

Sodium 1.052  Sodium..                                "3';341 

Oxygen..  0.667        Oxygen '.'.'.'.'." '.'.OAOS 

Calcmm  phosphate 0.114        Calcium  phosphate 0  311 

Magnesium  phosphate 0 . 073        Magnesium  phosphate 0 . 222 


22  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

The  blood  contains  a\l  the  elements  of  every  part  of  the 
body.  Yet  it  bears  but  a  small  proportion  to  the  whole 
body,  averaging  only  from  6  to  8  per  cent.  Although  the 
blood  is  constantly  furnishing  material  to  build  up  the 
tissues  of  the  body  in  every  part,  yet  its  quantity  remains 
practically  the  same,  and  its  chemical  constituents  may  be 
considered  unvarying — the  blood  is  constantly  forming 
from  the  food  and  as  constantly  being  absorbed  by  the 
secretory  vessels. 

2d.  The  fleshy  parts,  or  muscles,  of  animals  consist, 
principally,  of  muscular  fibre,  or  fibrin;  and  contain, 
besides  cellular  tissue,  nervous  substance,  blood,  and  lym- 
phatic vessels  and  an  acid  juice.  This  juice  contains  lactic 
acid,  a  little  albumen,  some  salts  of  potash,  phosphate  of 
lime,  and  magnesia,  and  gives  the  taste  to  flesh.  This 
muscular  fibre  has  a  close  analogy  to  the  fibrin  oi  blood,  to 
albumen,  white  of  eggs,  casein,  gluten,  legumen,  and  albu- 
men of  vegetables.  All  these  substances  contain  about  IG 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  and  a  small  quantity  ol  phosphorus 
and  sulphur. 

These  albuminoids  contained  in  the  muscles,  cellular 
tissue,  blood  and  lymphatic  vessels  have  a  general  compo- 
sition, according  to  J.  F.  W.  Johnston,  of: 

Water 77.00 

Albuminoids,  with  a  little  fat 22.00 

Phosphate  of  lime 66 

Other  saline  matter  (sulphur,  etc.) 34 

100.00 

The  ultimate  composition  of  albuminoids  has  about  the 
following  average  : 

Carbon 53.00 

Hydrogen 7.00 

Nitrogen 16 .  00 

Oxygen 22.50 

Sufphur *....     1  50 

100.00 


COMPOSITION"  OF   AITIMAL  BODIES.  23 

It  will  be  important  when  considering  the  effect  of 
albuminoids  in  the  fattening  ration  of  animals  to  refer  to 
this  analysis. 

3d.  The  skin,  hair,  horn,  hoof  a-nd  wool  possess  a  simi- 
lar composition  to  the  muscular  parts  of  the  animal  body, 
the  principal  difference  consisting  in  a  larger  proportion 
of  sulphur  (three  to  five  per  cent.)  which  they  contain,  and 
varying  proportions  of  nitrogen.  They  consist  of  a  sub- 
stance resembling  gluten  and  gelatine  in  composition,  and, 
containing  less  water  than  muscular  fibre,  they  leave  from 
one  to  two  per  cent,  of  ash.  According  to  Johnston  they 
contain  of  organic  matter  : 

Horse's  Hoof.  Skin.  Wool.  Hair.  Horn. 
(Mulder.) 

Carbon 51.41  50.99  50.65  51.53  51.99 

Hydrogen 6.96  7.07  7.03  6.69  6.72 

Nitrogen 17.46  18.72  17.71  17.94  17.28 

Oxygen  and  Sulphur.          24.72  23.22  24.61  23.84  24.01 

100.00   100.00   100.00   100.00 

4th.  The  fat  of  animals  is  a  mixture  of  several  organic 
compounds,  which  are  all  distinguished  by  containing  a 
large  proportion  of  carbon,  united  with  oxygen  and  hydro- 
gen, but  has  no  nitrogen,  or  inorganic  matter.  The  same 
constituents  which  are  found  in  animal  exist  in  the  vege- 
table oils  and  fatty  matters  of  vegetables. 

In  order  that  the  reader  may  have  a  mode  of  comparison 
of  the  relative  value  of  fat  and  starch  in  foods,  we  give  the 
following  average  analyses  of  fats  : 

Carbon.  Hydrogen.  Oxygen. 

Beef  fat ' 76.50                      11.91  11.59 

Mutton  fat 76.61                      12.03  11.36 

Porkfat 76.54                      11.94  11.52 

5th.  The  bones  consist  of  about  one-third  organic 
matter,  made  up  mostly  of  gelatine,  containing  about  18 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen  ;  and  the  other  two-thirds,  or  (^Q  per 
cent.,  of  phosphate  of  lime,  carbonate  of  lime,  phosphate 
of  magnesia,  potash  and  common  salt. 


24:  FEEDING  ANIMALS. 

The  formula  given  by  Johnston  is  as  follows  : 

COMPOSITION  OF  BONES. 

Gelatine 35 

Phosphate  of  lime 55 

(Containing  phosphoric  acid,  23.38) 

Carbonate  of  lime 4 

Phosphate  of  magnesia 3 

Soda,  potash  and  common  salt 3 

100 

This  is  from  the  mature  animal.  The  bones  of  an 
animal  at  birth  do  not  contain  more  than  50  per  cent,  of 
ash. 

Chemically  considered,  then,  animal  bodies  consist  of  : 
1st.  Organic  matters  free  from  nitrogen.  2d.  Organic  mat- 
ters rich  in  nitrogen — fibrin  and  albumin.  3d.  Inorganic 
salts — chloride  of  sodium,  phosphate  of  lime,  potash,  etc. 
4th.  Water.  These  constituents  of  the  animal  body  must 
all  be  derived  from  the  food. 

That  most  painstaking  and  accurate  experimenter,  to 
whom  all  agriculturists  are  deeply  indebted,  Sir  J.  B. 
Lawes,  of  Eothamsted,  England,  with  his  assistant.  Dr. 
Gilbert,  undei-took  an  experiment,  a  few  years  ago,  to 
determine  the  proportion  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
animal,  and  the  composition  of  each  part.  The  fat  and 
the  nitrogenous  or  lean  was  carefully  determined  by  analy- 
sis in  the  dressed  carcass,  in  the  offal,  and  in  the  entire 
animal.  There  were  a  large  number  of  oxen,  sheep  and 
pigs  in  these  feeding  experiments,  and  from  these  ten  were 
selected.  These  consisted  of  a  fat  calf,  a  half-fat  ox,  a  fat 
ox,  a  fat  lamb,  a  store  sheep,  a  half-fat  old  sheep,  a  fat 
sheep,  a  very  fat  sheep,  a  store  pig  and  a  fat  pig. 

The  popular  idea  had  been  that  all  animals,  except  the 
fattest,  contained  more  lean  flesh  than  fat.  But  this  table 
refutes  tliis  idea  most  conclusively.  The  fat  ox  and  fat 
lamb  contained  about  three  times  as  much  fat  as  lean  flesh. 
This  table,  which  we  give,  contains  very  precise  evidence 


COMPOSITIOiq-   OF   ANIMAL   BODIES.  25 

of  the  useful  and  the  waste  parts  of  the  animal,  and  can 
be  studied  with  profit,  as  showing  how  the  parts  of  the 
animal  change  as  the  i^rocess  of  fattening  goes  on.* 

In  explanation  of  this  table :  The  carcass  is  that  part  of 
the  animal  consumed  as  food.  The  offal  is  made  up  of 
those  parts  not  consumed  as  human  food,  and  embraces 
skin,  feet,  head  and  all  the  internal  organs,  except  the  kid- 
ney and  kidney  fat.  The  relative  proportion  of  fat  in  the 
carcasses  analyzed  is  given ;  but  the  nitrogenous  matters 
are  found  in  large  proportion  in  the  oflfal,  so  that  the  rela- 
tive i^roportions  of  the  constituents  of  the  Avhole  body  are 
considered.  In  a  fat  and  fully-grown  animal,  there  is  49 
per  cent,  of  water,  33  per  cent,  of  dry  fat,  13  \)qy  cent,  of 
dry  nitrogenous  matter — muscles  separated  from  fat,  hide, 
etc.,  and  3  per  cent,  of  mineral  matter.  In  the  lean  animal 
the  average  proportion  is  5-1:  per  cent,  of  water,  25^  per 
cent,  of  dry  fat,  17  per  cent,  of  dry  nitrogenous  matter, 
and  3^  per  cent,  of  mineral  substances. 

This  table  contains  a  summary  of  the  most  important 
experiments  ever  carried  out  to  ascertain  the  facts  here 
stated.  This  clearly  shows  how  a  lean  animal  exchanges 
water  for  fat,  and  how  the  animal  may  be  improving  most 
profitably  without  gaining  much  in  weight  by  a  substitu- 
tion of  fat  for  water.  He  shows  that  during  the  last  stages 
of  fattening  the  gain  may  consist  of  75  or  more  per  cent, 
of  dry  substance. 

We  place  this  table  in  the  first  chapter  that  it  may  be 
easy  of  reference  in  illustration  of  the  feeding  experi- 
ments given  in  the  progress  of  the  work. 

We  also  print  here  an  extensive  table  of  proportions  of 
the  various  parts  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine,  from  the  Ger- 
man of  Wolff,  for  a  translation  of  which  we  are  indebted 

*  "  Experimental  Inquiry  into  the  Composition  of  some  of  the  Animals 
Slaughtered  as  Human  Food."    By  John  Bennet  Lawes,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  C.  S., 
and  Joseph  Henrj^  GilljMrt,  Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S.     Philosophical  Transactions 
of  the  Royal  Society,  Part  II.,  1S(J0. 
3 


26 


PEEDIN-G   AKIMALS. 


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COMPOSITION^    OF    ANIMAL   BODIES. 


27 


to  Dr.  Armsby's  Manual  of  Cattle  Feeding.  A  study  of 
this  table  will  give  the  reader  accurate  information  of  the 
percentage  proportion  of  all  the  various  parts  of  the 
animal,  and  he  will  see  the  proportion  of  valuable  parts, 
and  the  true  basis  of  judging  of  the  value  of  an  animal  to 
the  butcher,  etc.  This  table  will  be  needed  for  frequent 
reference.  It  shows  in  an  admirable  way  the  changes  from 
the  lean  to  the  fat  animal,  from  the  young  to  the  mature. 
We  trust  that  in  this  chapter  the  reader  will  find  a  full 
explanation  of  all  questions  that  may  arise  in  relation  to 
the  composition  of  animal  bodies. 

Proportion's  of  the  Various  Parts  of  Cattle,  Sheep 
AND  Swine. 


- 

Ox. 

1 

Sheep. 

Swine. 

<2 

^ 

J 

perct 
16.0 
3.9 

\- 

5.0 

4.8 

4.6 

0.4 
1.5 

1.4 

0.3 
0.2 

2.4 
2.3 
3.0 

43.3 

1.3 

100.0 

perct. 

15.0 

3.9 

9.3 

4.7 
4.5 

4.3 

0.3 
1.5 

1.3 

0.3 
0.2 

2.3 
2.2 
4.1 

45.3 

0.8 

100.0 

3 

14.0 

3.6 

8.0 

4.3 
4.0 

3.7 

0.4 
1.2 

1.3 

0.3 
0.2 

2.3 
1.9 
4.9 

49.4 

0.5 

100.0 

perct. 

12.0 

3.2 

7.2 

4.0 
3.6 

3.2 

0.3 
1.0 

1.3 

0.2 
0.1 

2.0 
1.7 
6.8 

52.8 

0.6 

100.0 

> 

per  ct. 

10.0 

3.2 

6.5 

3.6 
3.2 

2.8 

0.2i 
1.0 

1.0 

0.2 
0.1 

1.5 
1.3 
8.0 

57.1 
0.3 

1 

1 
perct. 
7.0 
7.3 

0.5 
1.4 

2.6 

■6!2 

1.2 

3.9 
1.7 

72.8 

0.9 

100.0 

i 

Contents  of  stom- ) 
ach    and   intes-  V 
tines ) 

Blood 

perct. 

16.0 

4.7 
8.4 

1.9 

'k'.S 
0.6 
0.4 
0.7 

1.5 

0.5 
0.2 

4.5 
2.0 
2.3 

47.4 
4.1 

P.O.. 

15.0 
4.2 

7.4 
1.7 

ii 

0  5 
0.7 

1.3 

0.5 
0.2 

3.0 
1.5 
2.9 

55.7 
2.1 

perct. 

12.0 

3.9 
6.0 

1.6 

2:6 
0.5 
0.5 
0.6 

1.3 

0.5 
0.2 

2.7 

1.4 
4.5 

60.3 
1.4 

perct. 

7.0 

4.8 
6.8 

1.9 

^'« 

0.6 
1.2 

1.6 

0.4 
0.3 

1.2 
2.4 
2.4 

60.0 

4.6 

100.0 

per  ct. 
5.0 
3.6 

Skin  and  horns 

Legs  to   gambrel  ^ 

joints 3 

Washed  wool 

Wool-dirt 

Head 

Tongue  and  gullet.. 
Heart 

0.4 
0.3 
0.9 

1.7 

0:2 
0.7 
2.2 
2.5 

82.1 
0.4 

Lungs  and  windpipe 
Liver  and  gall  } 
bladder,        5  •  •  •  • 

Diaphragm 

Spleen 

Stomach,  without  > 
contents 5 

Intestines,   with-  ) 
out  contents  ...  5 

Fat   of  omentum  ) 
and  intestines..  3 

Four  quarters,  in-1 
eluding  kidneys  >■ 
and  kidney  fat,  ) 

Loss   

Total 

,«,.o 

100.0 

100.0 

lOO.OJ 

100.0 

28 


FEEDING    ANIMALS. 


SUSOIARY. 


Blood 

Skin,    head,    legs 
and  tongue 

Entrails 

Flesh  and  fat 

Contents  of  stom-  1 
ach  and  iutes-  >- 
tines ) 


! 

Ox. 

1 

-3 

i 

i 

per  ct. 

per  ct. 

per  ct. 

perct. 

4.7 

4.2 

3.9 

4.8 

13.7 

12.4 

10.9 

13.5 

9.8 
49.7 

7.7 
58.6 

7.2 
64.8 

7.7 
62.4 

18.0 

15.0 

12.0 

7.0 

Sheep. 

Swi 

1 

a 

<2 

a 

per  ct. 

1 

1 

r 
> 

per  ct. 

per  ct. 

perct. 

per  ct. 

pertt. 

3.9 

3.9 

3.6 

3.2 

3.2 

7.3 

24.0 

22.8 

20.0 

18.0 

16.1 



8.5 
46.3 

8.1 
49.4 

7.7 
54.3 

6.6 
59.6 

5.3 
65.1 

9.8 
74.5 

16.0 

15.0 

14.0 

12.0 

10.0 

7.0 

par  ot. 
3.0 


6.0 
84.0 


5  0 


CONSTITUENTS     OF     CARCASS     (DRESSED     WEIGHT,      INCLUDING     FAT     OF 
OMENTUM,   ETC.). 


Flesh,  without  fat ) 

and  bones > 

Bones 

36.0 

7.4 
2.0 
2.0 

2.3 

49.7 

38.0 

7.3 
7.9 
2.5 

2.9 

58.6 

35.0 

7.1 
14.7 
3.5 

4.5 

43.0 

9.3 
5.5 
2.2 

2  4 

33.2 

7.1 
2.0 
1.0 

3.0 

33.5 

6.6 
3.3 
1.9 

4.1 

33.1 

5.9 
8.0 
2.4 

4.9 

29.0 

5.5 
14.7 
3.6 

6.8 

sr.o 

5.2 
20.5 
4.4 

8.0 

46.4 

8.0 

16.5 

1.9 

1.7 

40.0 
5.8 

Fat  in  flesh    

Fat  on  kidneys 

Fat  on  omentum  ) 
and  intestines.,  3 

32.4 
3.9 

2.5 

Total 

64.8 

62.4 

46.3 

49.4 

54.3 

59.6 

65.1 

74.5 

84.6 

FLESH  OF  CARCASS,   WITHOUT  FAT  OR  BONES. 


Dry  matter 

Water     

8.0     8.4 
28.0   29.6 

36.0   38.0 

7.5 
27.5 

35.0 

8.S 
34.2 

6.8 
26.4 

6.7 
26.8 

6.3 
26  8 

5.4 

23.6 

5.1 
21.9 

8.1'    7.3 
3S.3    32  7 

Total 

43.0 

33.2 

33.5 

33.1 

29.0 

27.0 

46.4'  40.0 

1 

IN   100  PARTS  OF  FLESH,  WITHOUT  BONES    (BUTCHERS'   MEAT). 


Fat    

Muscle  substance 

Ash 

Water 

Total 


5.3 

,r.. 

19.8 

17.5 

1.2 

0.9 

73.7 

64.4 

100.0 

100.0' 

29.4 
14.5! 

0.8| 
55. 3I 


11.3 

5.7 

9.0 

17.0 

18.0 

17.1 

1.1 

1  3 

1.1 

70.6 

75.0 

72.8 

100.0 

1 

100.0 

100.0 

19.5    33.6 
14.5    11.7 
0.8     0.7 
65.2    54.0 

43.2'    26.2 
10.2     12.3 
00       06 
4f;.0     60.(1 

lOO.OjlOO.O 

100.0   100.0 

0.4 
44.4 

100.0 


COMPOSITION    OF   ANIMAL   BuDIES.  29 

PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  LIVE  ANIMALS. 


Ox. 

1 

Shiep. 

Swine. 

' 

1 

i 

s 

"a 

i 

1 

t2 

1 

Fat 

Protein  

Ash             

perct. 

7.1 
15.8 

4.8 
54.3 

18.0 
100.0 

per  ct. 

14.9 

15.5 

4.4 

50.2 

15.0 
,00.0 

perct. 

26.8 
13.7 
3.9 
43.6 

12.0 

perct. 

13  1 
15.3 
4.5 
60.1 

7.0 

1 

perct. 

8.6 
15.4 

3.4 
56.6 

16.0 

per  ct. 

13.2 

14.8 

3.3 

53.7 

15.0 

perct 

18.3 

13.8 

3.2 

50.7 

14.0 

perct. 

28.1 
12.2 
2.9 

44.8 

12.0 

per  ct. 

37.2 

11.0 

2.8 

39.0 

10.0 
100.0 

perct. 

22.5 
13.9 
2.7 
53.9 

7.0 

per  ct. 

40.2 

11.0 

1  8 

Water 

Contents  of  stom-  J 
ach    and    intes-  V 
tines ) 

42.0 
5.0 

Total 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0  100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100  0 

THE  SAME,    LESS  CONTEXTS   OF  STOMACH  AND  INTESTINES. 


Fat  .... 
Protein 
Ash  .. 
Water  . 


Total 


8.7I  17.5 
19  2    18.3 

5.9,  5.2 
66  2    59.0 

30.5 
15.6 
4.4 
49.5 

100.0 

14.1 
10.5 
4.8 
64.6, 

10.2 

18.3 
4.0 
67.5 

I5.5I  21.3 
17.4    16.0 
3.9     3.8 
63.2    58.9 

100.0  100.0 

1 

100.0100.0 

100. 0| 

100  0 

31.9'  41.4 

24.2 

13.9    12.2 

15.0 

3.3      3.1 

2.9 

50.9    43.3 

57.9 

loo.o'ioo.o 

100.0 

42.  S 

11.9 

1.9 

43.9 

100.0 


MINERAL  MATTER  IN  100  PARTS  OF  LIVE  ANIMALS. 


Phosphoric  acid. 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Pota-h 

Soda 

Silica 

Sulphnric  acid 
chlorine  and  car 
bonic  acid 

Total 


1.92 

1  76 

1.56 

1.64 

1.33 

1.29 

1.25 

1.13 

1.09! 

1 
1.10 

2,14 

1  96 

1.74 

1.93 

1.40 

1.35 

1.31 

1.19 

1.15 

1.15 

0.06 

0  06 

0.05 

o.oel 

0.05 

0.04 

0.04 

0.04 

0.04 

0.05 

0.18 

0.16 

0  14 

0.291 

0.16 

0.16 

0.15 

0.14 

0.13 

0.15 

0  14 

0  13 

0.12 

0.07! 

0.15 

0.15 

0.14 

0.13 

0.12 

0.19 

0.02 

0.01 

0  01 

0.01 

0.02 

0.02 

0.02 

0.02 

0.02 

0.34 

0.32 

0.28 
3.90 

0.50 

1 

4.50 

0.29 

3.40 

0.29 

0.29 

0.25 

0.25' 

0.15 

4.80 

4.40 

3.30 

3.20 

2.90 

2.80 

1 

2.70 

0.73 
0.77 
0.03 
0.10 
0.07 


0.10 


1.80 


30  FEEDIXG   ANIMALS. 


CHAPTER   11. 

ELEMENTS    OF    FODDER   VEGETABLES. 

Haying  considered  in  the  last  chapter  tlie  complicated 
structure  of  the  animal  body,  we  now  proceed  to  show  the 
feeder  how  these  complex  bodies  of  animals  are  nourished 
and  renewed  by  the  assimilation  and  substitution  of  the 
same  elements  contained  in  vegetables.  These  animal 
bodies  are  constantly  undergoing  changes,  the  substances 
of  which  they  are  composed  are  broken  down  or  de- 
stroyed, and  substances  identical  in  composition  in  vege- 
table foods  are  replacing  them  in  the  animal  economy. 

A  Nutrient. — The  terni  nutrient,  which  will  frequently 
be  used,  means  any  single  chemical  compound,  such  as 
starch,  sugar,  fat,  gluten,  casein,  albumen,  etc.,  which  is 
capable  of  nourishing  the  body  or  repairing  its  waste. 

Every  fodder  used  in  feeding  animals  is  composed  of 
more  than  one  nutrient ;  and  these  nutrients  are  contained 
in  very  unlike  proportions  in  different  feeding  stuffs. 

Ration. — The  animal  body  is  made  up  of  these  various 
compounds,  but  the  proportions  of  the  various  constitu- 
ents are  nearly  the  same  at  all  times,  so  that  the  food  on 
which  it  is  sustained  should  have  about  the  same  jiropor- 
tion  of  these  different  nutrients  as  are  the  proportions  of 
these  elements  in  the  animal  body.  The  skill  of  the  feeder 
is  shown  in  combining  these  different  foods  so  as  to  make 
up  a  mixture  meeting  all  the  Avants  of  the  animal.  This 
combination  is  pro^^erly  called  a  ration. 


NITROGENOUS    NUTRIENTS.  31 

To  explain :  The  animal  body  is  made  up  of  nitrogenous, 
and  non-nitrogenous  elements,  with  some  mineral  sub- 
stances. Some  fodders  .  possess  all  these  elements  in 
proper  combination,  such  as  a  mixture  of  grasses  or  meadow 
hay.  Some  have  one  and  some  the  otlier  group  of  nutri- 
ents in  excess;  such  as  straw,  turnips  and  Indian  corn, 
have  the  carbonacious  elements  in  excess,  whilst  oil-cake, 
malt-sprouts,  etc.,  contain  an  excess  of  the  nitrogenous  or 
albuminoid  nutrients — but  when  properly  mixed  these  wiil 
constitute  a  complete  food  or  ration. 

Let  us  now  explain  the  three  groups  of  nutrients  con- 
tained in  vegetables. 

Nitrogenous  Nutrients. 

We  shall  not  attempt  to  go  into  a  detailed  explanation  of 
all  the  names  of  nitrogenous  substances  which  modern 
chemists  have  found  to  exist  in  vegetables  used  as  food  for 
animals.  So  far  as  any  practical  advantage  to  the  feeder, 
these  nitrogenous  substances  may  all  be  considered  to  have 
the  same  general  composition  as  the  albuminoids  of  the 
animal  body,  and  are  generally  called  albuminoids.  Three 
of  these  vegetable  albuminoids,  best  understood,  albumen, 
casein,  and  fibrin,  we  shall  proceed  to  explain  and  compare 
them  with  animal  albuminoids — giving  a  table  containing 
these  with  several  other  subdivisions  recently  made  by 
chemists. 

If  we  examine  wheat  flour,  making  it  into  a  dough,  then 
washing  it  several  times  on  a  piece  of  muslin,  tied  over  the 
mouth  of  a  tumbler,  until  the  water  passes  through  clear, 
the  flour  is  separated  into  its  two  chief  constituent  parts — 
the  starch,  which  forms  the  chief  portion  of  the  wheat,  is 
washed  through  the  muslin  ;  the  gluten,  mixed  with  the 
bran  of  the  grain,  remains  on  the  muslin,  in  the  form  of  a 
whitish-gray,  sticky  substance.  The  gluten  thus  obtained 
is  not  simple,  but  a  mixture  of  several  similar  substances 


32  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

and  some  fatty  matters.  If  the  milky  liquid  which  passes 
through  the  muslin  is  allowed  to  stand  undisturbed  for  a 
little  time,  all  the  starch  will  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the 
tumbler,  and  the  liquid  above  will  be  quite  clear,  and  may 
l)e  drawn  off.  On  boiling  this  clear  liquid,  white,  volum- 
inous flakes  of  vegetable  albumen  (a  substance  similar  to 
the  white  of  eggs)  will  separate.  After  removing  the  al- 
bumen and  evaporating  the  liquid,  a  little  sugar  and  gum 
will  be  found.  Thus  starch,  sugar,  gum,  fat,  gluten,  albu- 
men, and  salts  are  found  in  wheat.  In  Indian  corn,  rye, 
and  barley  these  constituents  will  be  found  nearly  the 
same;  but  in  oats,  peas,  beans,  etc.,  instead  of  gluten  and 
albumen,  will  be  found  a  substance  which  resembles,  in 
nearly  all  chemical  characteristics,  casein  of  the  curd  of 
milk.  This  substance,  having  first  been  found  in  legumi- 
nous plants,  is  called  legumen,  and  is  so  near  like  casein  as 
to  be  called  vegetable  casein. 

The  most  of  the  table  on  opposite  page  is  taken  from 
analyses  by  Eitthausen. 

Chemists  have  also  found  certain  nitrogenous  organic 
substances  in  the  grasses  and  other  vegetables,  having  some 
chemical  resemblance  to  ammonia — called  amides.  But  a 
separate  discussion  of  these  is  not  important,  since  in 
analyses  these  are  included  in  the  total  amount  of  nitrogen 
in  the  plant. 

The  term  7;?'o/e/?i  is  now  largely  used  by  chemists  to 
mean  all  the  albuminoids  collectively.  As  will  be  seen  by 
the  above  table,  all  these  substances  contain  about  16  per 
cent,  of  nitrogen,  and  small  quantities  of  sulphur  or  phos- 
phorus, or  both.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  percentage  of 
nitrogen  is  substantially  the  same  in  these  vegetable  sub- 
stances as  in  animal  albumen,  casein,  and  fibrin,  and  they 
can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  each  other.  Therefore 
we  see  that  the  material  of  which  tlie  flesh  and  blood  of 
animals    principally   consist,   exist    ready-formed    in   the 


NITROGENOUS    NUTRIENTS. 


33 


ccpaag 


:;  « J?  o  5 

=  3  <S  J5  3 
5  W 


I-1H-.05  -^  CO 

io  bs  m  K)  w 


1  »S  oi  -1  JO 


Animal  Albumen. 


Vegetable  Albumen. 


Gluten  of  Wheat. 


i-i  *»  OV  -3  OS 
bi  or  O  O  O 


Casein  of  Milk. 


8     o  to  ^  ~1 


-J  OS  *>.  *i.  05 


Oats. 


[oos-i-i^       Peas. 


Beans, 


1-'  O  C5  <l  ><». 


OCiOD  — iO 


^Si^s; 


)0  03-1 


Wheat. 


Barley 


Maize. 


ssss: 


Mucediii  from  Wheat 


Gliadin  from  Wheat. 


34  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

cereals  and  leguminous  seeds  which  animals  eat.  They  are 
also  found  in  smaller  (luantities  in  grass,  clover,  hay,  and 
other  foods.  Without  undergoing  much  change  in  the 
animal  stomach,  they  are  assimilated  and  readily  converted 
into  blood  and  thence  into  muscular  fibre.  But  all  tliese 
plants  which  serve  as  food  for  animals,  contain  only  a  small 
proportion  of  albumen,  casein,  and  gluten,  and  other  albu- 
minoids ;  their  great  bulk  is  made  up  of  starch,  gum,  sugar, 
cellular  fibre,  and  some  other  carbo-hydrates.  They  present 
the  animal  with  a  mixture  in  which  the  substance  of  the 
muscles  exists  ready-formed  ;  and  for  this  reason  the  albu- 
men, casein,  legumen,  gluten,  and  other  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds of  vegetables  were  first  cnWedfesh-forminr/  princi- 
ples, or  flesh  formers.  They  are  now  more  commonly  called 
albuminoids,  or  proteids.  Careful  experiments  have  shown 
that  no  foods  wliich  do  not  contain  albuminous  compounds 
can  sustain  animal  life  for  more  than  a  few  days.  A  sheep, 
weighing  52  lbs.,  being  fed  on  sugar  dissolved  in  water, 
died  in  20  days,  and  lost  21  lbs.  A  goose,  weighing  G  lbs. 
1  oz.,  fed  on  sugar,  died  in  22  days ;  another,  fed  on  starch, 
lived  27  days.  Dogs  fed  on  starch,  sugar,  gum,  butter,  and 
other  food  perfectly  free  from  albuminoids,  apparently  keep 
their  condition  the  first  week,  then  rapidly  become  emaci- 
ated, and  die  at  about  the  end  of  the  fifth  week,  only  a 
little  later  than  if  no  food  had  been  given  them.  It  has 
also  been  found  that  animals  cannot  live  upon  albuminoids 
alone.  But  foods  rich  in  albuminoids  have  a  great  superi- 
ority in  feeding  value. 

NOX-NITROGENOUS   NUTRIENTS. 

Carbo-hydrates.— As  we  have  seen,  the  great  bulk  of 
vegetables  is  made  up  of  non-nitrogenous  compounds — 
called  carbo-hydrates.  The  principal  of  these  are  cellulose, 
a  woody  fibre,  starch,  dextrine,  cane,  grape  and  fruit  sugar, 
and  the  gums.      They  are  called  carbo-hydrates  because 


kox-xitroge:nous  nutrients.  35 

they  are  composed  simply  of  carbon,  and  the  elements  of 
water — hydrogen  and  oxygen. 

Cellulose. — The  cellular  structure  of  all  jolants,  and  of 
the  trunks  of  trees,  consist  of  this  substance.  It  consti- 
tutes the  frame-work  of  plants;  and  the  cells  of  this 
frame-work  are  internally  coated,  or  incrusted  with  a  harder 
and  tougher  substance,  called  lignin.  These  two  substan- 
ces are  so  much  found  together,  and  their  chemical  com- 
position is  so  nearly  alike,  that  they  may  j^roperly  be 
considered  together. 

Pure  cellulose  has  the  same  chemical  composition  as 
starch,  and  all  woody  fibres  can  be  changed  into  starch  by 
heat  and  by  acids. 

The  dried  stalks  of  all  grass  and  fodder  plants  are  com- 
posed largely  of  cellulose. 

Effect  of  Heat  upon  Woody  Fibre. — J.  F.  W.  John- 
ston quotes  from  Schiibler  the  following:  ^- If  wood  be 
reduced  to  the  state  of  fine  sawdust,  and  l)e  then  boiled  in 
water  to  separate  everything  soluble,  afterwards  dried  by  a 
gentle  heat,  then  heated  several  times  in  a  baker's  oven,  it 
will  become  hard  and  crisp,  and  may  be  ground  in  the  mill 
into  fine  meal.  The  powder  thus  obtained  is  slightly  yel- 
low in  color,  but  has  a  taste  and  smell  similar  to  the  flour 
of  wheat ;  it  ferments  when  made  into  paste  with  yeast  or 
leaven,  and  when  baked  gives  a  light,  homogeneous  bread. 
Boiled  with  water,  it  yields  a  stiff,  tremulous  jelly  like  that 
from  starch." 

It  thus  appears,  that  by  the  agency  of  heat,  woody  fibre 
may  be  changed  into  starch. 

Effect  of  Acid  upon-  it.— If  these  parts  of  fine  saw- 
dust, or  fragments  of  old  linen  be  rubbed  in  a  mortar  witli 
four  parts  of  sulphuric  acid,  added  by  degrees,  it  will,  in 
15  minutes,  be  rendered  completely  soluble  in  water.  If 
the  solution  in  water  be  freed  from  acid  with  chalk,  and 


36  FEEDIXG   AKIMALS. 

then  evaporated,  a  substance  resembling  gum  arable  is 
obtained.  And,  according  to  Scbleiden,  the  fibre  may  be 
seen,  under  the  micn^scope,  gradually  to  change  from  with- 
out inwards,  first  into  starch,  then  into  gum.  The  fibre  of 
wood  or  linen  may  be  changed  directly  into  sugar  by  the 
prolonged  action  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

Digestibility  of  Cellulose. — Woody  fibre  was  form- 
erly thought  to  be  quite  indigestible.  Haubner,  about 
1850,  showed  that  ruminants  digested  a  large  proportion 
of  cellulose.  And  hundreds  of  digestion  experiments  have 
shown  that  this  substance  is  an  important  part  of  fodder 
for  herbivorous  domestic  animals.  The  German  experi- 
ments have  undertaken  to  fix  the  percentage  of  cellulose 
digested  in  a  large  number  of  our  coarse  fodders,  and  also 
of  cereal  grains.  Of  the  former,  ruminants  were  found  to 
digest  from  30  to  70  per  cent.,  whilst  the  cellulose  of  grains 
was  found  less  digestible.  The  woody  fibre  of  young  and 
tender  plants  was  found  much  more  digestible  than  when 
nearer  maturity,  and  more  liguin  had  formed.  It  is 
doubted  even  now  if  lignin  is  digestible,  especially  in  its 
crude  state. 

Starch. — This  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  substances  in 
the  vegetable  kingdom,  being  found  in  all  plants.  It  is 
exceeded  in  quantity  only  by  cellulose.  It  is  supposed  to 
be  formed  in  the  green  leaves  of  plants  and  trees  from  the 
carbonic  acid  of  the  air,  aided  by  sunlight.  It  seems  to  be 
deposited  most  rapidly  in  plants  near  the  time  of  ripening. 
It  is  found  largely  in  the  cereal  grains.  Indian  corn  con- 
tains GO  to  68  per  cent.,  and  wheat  from  62  to  72  per  cent. 

Starch  appears  to  the  eye  like  particles  of  meal,  yet 
under  a  strong  microscope  it  is  found  to  consist  of  small 
and  regular  grains  or  globules. 

We  have  seen  how  starch  may  be  separated  from  wheat 
or  other  grain.     If  fresh  plants,  such  as  grass  before  bios- 


no;n'-n^itrogexous  nutrients.  87 

som,  are  bruised  and  mascerated,  and  the  liquid  then 
pressed  out,  a  large  portion  of  the  starch  will  pass  with  the 
juice  from  the  vegetable  tissue,  and  after  standing  for  a 
short  time,  will  settle  as  a  mealy  mass.  Almost  every 
housewife  knows  how  to  separate  starch  from  potatoes. 

It  cannot  be  dissolved  in  cold  water  without  the  grains 
are  mashed  very  fine,  and  then  only  a  small  proportion  is 
dissolved.  But  when  mixed  with  water  at  the  boiling 
point,  the  grains  absorb  water  and  burst.  It  is  from  this 
fact  that  cooking  starchy  food  is  supposed  to  render  it 
much  more  digestible.  When  boiled  with  weak  acids  or 
alkalies  it  is  converted  into  grape  sugar,  even  the  action  of 
saliva  is  supposed  to  change  starch  into  sugar.  Liebig 
supposed  it  turned  into  sugar  in  the  process  of  digestion. 
We  shall  give  its  composition  with  other  carbo-hydrates. 

Dextrine. — This  may  be  considered  as  an  artificial  pro- 
duct of  starch,  produced  by  dry  heat  upon  it.  It  is  a  com- 
mercial article  under  the  name  of  British  gum. 

Sngai's. — There  are  cane,  grape  and  fruit  sugars.  The 
first  is  produced  from  the  juice  of  the  sugar  cane  plant, 
from  beet  root,  sugar-maple  and  other  plants — this  is  the 
principal  sugar  of  commerce.  Grape  sugar  and  fruit  sugar 
occur  in  the  juices  of  many  plants,  and  are  often  found 
together  and  in  the  fruits  and  honey.  They  are  all  soluble 
in  water,  and  easily  digested.  In  the  process  of  digestion, 
cellulose  and  starch  are  supposed  to  be  turned  into  sugar. 

The  Pectin-  Substances. — These  are  found  in  fruits  and 
roots.  In  fruits  these  substances  form  jellies,  but  their  ex- 
act chemical  composition  has  not  been  much  investigated. 
It  has  been  supposed  by  some  careful  observers  that  the 
pectin  of  fruits  and  of  turnips,  beets,  carrots  and  other 
roots,  has  an  important  eff*ect  in  assisting  in  the  digestion 
of  other  food,  that  this  substance  assists  in  rendering  other 


38  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

carbo-hydrates  soluble,  or  by  gelatinizing  the  contents  of 
the  stomach.  But  these  points  have  not  been  very  much 
investigated. 

It  is  found  that  pectin  is  increased  in  roots  and  fruits  by 
cooking.  The  process  of  digestion  may  perhaps  have  the 
same  eifect. 

Fats. — All  our  fodders  and  roots  contain  a  small  propor- 
tion of  fat,  and  this  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the 
carbo-hydrates.  The  fats  in  plants  have,  substantially,  the 
same  composition  as  the  fats  of  the  animal  hodj.  In  the 
analyses  which  will  be  given  of  all  these  bodies,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  fats  contain  a  much  larger  proportion  of 
carbon  and  correspondingly  less  oxygen;  and  in  burning 
gives  out  about  2K  times  as  much  heat  as  starch,  sugar, 
etc.,  and  are  estimated  to  have  23^  times  the  nutritive  value 
of  such  carbohydrates. 

Fat  is  found  in  different  fodders  about  in  the  following 
proportions  :  Average  meadow  hay  2.5  per  cent.,  best  3; 
clover,  very  good,  3.2;  timothy  3  percent.;  turnips  and 
other  roots  0.1  to  0.2';  Indian  corn  4  to  7  percent. ;  oats  G.O; 
rye  2.0 ;  barley  2.5,  etc.  ;  straw  from  1  to  2  per  cent.  But 
the  seeds,  of  cotton,  flax,  hemp,  and  some  other  plants, 
contain  irom  10  to  38  per  cent,  of  oil.  These  oil-bearing 
seeds  are  put  under  pressure  to  extract  the  oil  as  an  article 
of  commerce,  but  the  residue  (oil  cake)  retains  a  consid- 
erable proportion  of  oil. 

Oil  has  a  great  effect  in  rapid  fattening  of  animals,  but 
they  are  also  able  to  store  up  fat  from  the  carbo-hydrates. 

The  following  table  of  the  analysis  of  the  carbo-hydrates 
above  described  will  give  the  reader  a  correct  idea  of  their 
composition,  and  how  nearly  they  approximate  to  each 
other  : 


iOGENOUS 

NUTRIENTS. 

i 

Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

Oxygen. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent 

Per  cent. 

44.44 

6.17 

49.30 

55.30 

5.80 

38.90 

44.44 

0.17 

49.39 

43.11 

0.43 

51.46 

43.11 

6.43 

51.46 

40.00 

6.67 

53.33 

40.00 

6.67 

53.;^^ 

45.10 

6.10 

48.80 

76.50 

13.00 

11.50 

39 


Pure  cellulose 

Cellulose,  mixed  with  lig- 

nin 

Starch 

Cane  sugar. 

Milk  sugar 

Grape  sugar 

Fruit  sugar 

Gum 

Fats 

The  pectiiie  substances  have  a  composition  probably  very 
similar  to  gum.  The  above  table  will  show,  at  once,  how 
close  a  relation  there  is  between  all  the  members  of  this 
group  of  substances.  The  fats  are  not  usually  classed  witli 
the  carbo-hydrates,  because  the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  arc 
not  in  the  proportion  to  form  water,  but  being  composed' 
of  the  same  elements,  and  answering  the  same  purpose  in 
the  animal  economy,  they  may  all  be  classed  together. 
Even  when  fat  is  used  to  supply  animal  heat  it  has  two  and 
one-half  times  the  heating  power  of  starch. 

In  all  plants  cultivated  for  food,  there  is  a  greater  or  less 
amount  of  fatty  matter,  identical  in  composition  with  the 
several  kinds  of  fat  in  animal  bodies.  The  fatty  matters 
of  the  food  are  extracted  by  the  stomach  of  the  animal, 
and  easily  assimilated.  Plants  prepare  fatty  matters  from 
their  elements — carbon,  oxygen  and  hydrogen — and  present 
them  ready-formed  to  the  animal.  But  the  animal  pos- 
sesses the  power  of  preparing  fat  from  starchy  food  when 
there  is  not  fat  enough  ready-formed  for  its  wants,  and  may 
accumulate  fat-  from  starchy  food,  when  given  in  abundance. 

Inorgan"ic  Nutriexts. 

Our  food  plants  also  receive  from  the  soil  phosphates  of 
lime,  magnesia,  and  soda,  chlorides  of  sodium  and  potas- 
sium, oxide  of  iron,  sulphate  of  iron,  and  potash  ;  and 
these  same  compounds  exist  in  the  bodies  of  animals  in  the 


40 


FEEDING    ANIMALS. 


same  combination  as  found  in  plants.  The  plant  is  there- 
fore dependent  upon  the  soil  and  the  animal  upon  the 
plant. 

That  the  reader  may  get  a  definite  idea  of  the  proportion 
of  the  mineral  constituents  of  some  of  our  forage  plants 
and  grains,  together  with  some  of  the  by-fodders,  Ave  give 
the  following  table,  which  will  be  found  convenient  for 
reference.  "We  give  the  number  of  pounds,  and  fractions 
of  a  pound,  of  ash,  and  of  the  separate  elements  of  that 
ash,  in  100  pounds  of  the  dry  substance  of  hay,  straw, 
grain,  roots,  etc.  This  will  enable  the  reader  more  easily 
to  figure  the  exact  proportion  of  any  mineral  constituent 
in  any  ration  fed : 


100  Pounds  of 
Substance. 


Meadow  hay 

Dead  ripe  hay.. 

Red  clover 

Swedish  clover. 
Green  vetches., 
(ireen  oats 


cj 

■-_. 

.- 

«■ 

__. 

C3 

« 

a 

a 

C.1 

.1 

< 

^ 

^ 

a 
S 

li^ 

3  ~ 

m 

6 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

G.66 

1.71 

0.47 

0,33 

0.77 

0.41 

0.34 

1.97 

0.53 

6.62 

0.50 

0.19 

0.23 

0.85 

0.29 

0.05 

4.18 

0.38 

5.6.5 

1.95 

0.09 

0.69 

1.92 

0.56 

0.17 

0.15 

0.21 

4.65 

1.57 

0.07 

0.71 

1.48 

0  47 

0.19 

0.06 

0.13 

7.34 

3.09 

0.21 

0.50 

1.93 

0.94 

0.27 

0.13 

0.23 

6.18 

2.41 

0.20 

0.20 

0.41 

0.51 

0.17 

2.05 

0.25 

a. 
m 

lbs. 

0.17 
0.27 
0.21 

6'.i.5 
0.15 


GREEX  FODDER. 


Meadow  grass  ) 
ill  blossom.,  f 

Young  grass 

Timothy 

Oais  beginning  1 
to  head f 

2.33 

0.60 

0.16 

0.11 

0.27 

0.15 

0.12 

0.69 

0.19 

0.06 

2.07 
2.10 

1.70 

1.16 
0.61 

0.71 

0.04 
0.06 

0.08 

0.06 
0.08 

0.06 

0.22 
0.20 

0.12 

0.22 
0.23 

0.14 

0.08 
0.08 

0.06 

0.21 
0.75 

0.47 

0.04 
0.11 

0.08 

0.04 
0.08 
0  ft3 

Barley    begin- ' 

ning  to  head  ) 

T?ye  fodder 

2.23 
1.63 

0.86 
0.63 

0.04 
0.01 

0.07 
0.05 

0.16 
0.12 

0.23 
0.24 

0.07 
0.02 

0.70 
0.52 

0.,. 

0.05 

Hungarian  ( 
millet  ..  j  •••• 

T{ed  clover 

White  clover  ... 
Swedish  clover. 

Lucern  

Green  peas  .  . . . 

2.31 

0.86 

0.19 

0.25 

0.13 

0.08 

0.67 

0.15 

1.34 
1.36 
1  1  02 
1.76 
1.37 

0.46 
0.24 
0.35 
0.45 
0.56 

0  02 
0.11 
0.02 
0.02 

0.16 
0.14 
0.16 
0.10 
0.11 

0.46 
0.44 
0.32 
0.85 
0.39 

0.13 
0.20 
0.10 
0.15 
0.18 

0.04 
0.12 
0.04 
0.11 
0.05 

0.04 
0.06 
0.01 
0.04 
0.04 

0.05 
0.04 
0.03 
0.03 
0.02 

0.05 
0.06 

.... 

IKORGA^'IC    XUTRIEKT3. 

ROOT  CROP, 


41 


100  Pounds  of 
Substance. 


Potato 

Artichoke  . . . . 

Beet 

Turnip 

White  turnip. 

Carrot 

Beet  tops 

Turnip  tops  .. 
Carrot  tops... 
Cabbage  lieads 


jr 

_• 

cs 

rt 

%• 

l'-1 

■s. 

< 

I 

eg 

s 

J3 

Ch 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

0.94 

0.56 

0.01 

0.04 

0.02 

0.18 

1.03 

0.67 

0.03 

0.04 

0.16 

0.80 

0.43 

0.12 

0.04 

0.04 

0.08 

0.7.5 

0.30 

0.08 

0.03 

0.08 

O.W 

O.Gl 

0.31 

0.02 

0.01 

0.08 

0.11 

0.88 

0.32 

0.19 

0.05 

0.09 

0.11 

1.48 

0.43 

0.31 

0.14 

0  17 

0.08 

1.40 

0.32 

0.11 

0.0<J 

0.45 

0.13  i 

2.61 

0.37 

0.60 

0.12 

0.86 

0.12  i 

:  1.24 

0.60 

0.05 

0.04 

0.19 

0.20 

t» 


lbs. 
0.06 
0.03 
0.03 
0.11 
0.04 
0  06 
0.11 
0.14 
0.21 
0.11 


lbs. 
0.02 

h'sk 

0.02 
0.01 
0.02 
0.07 
0.05 
0.15 
0.01 


lbs. 
0.03 
0.02 
0.05 
0.03 
0.04 
0.03 
0.17 
0.12 
0.19 
0.03 


lbs. 
0.02 

6!6i 

0.04 

6!oi 

0.05 
0  05 
0.14 
0.05 


Winter  wheat 
Winter  rye  . .. 

Barley 

Oats 

]Slaize  fodder  . 

Pea  straw 

Bean  straw. . . 


4.26 
4.07 
4.39 
4.40 
4.72 
4.92 
5.84 


0.49 
0.76 
0.92 
0.97 
1.66 
1.07 
2.59 


0.12 
0.13 
0.20 
0.23 
0.05 
0.26 
0.22 


0.11 
0.13 
0.11 
0.18 
0  26 
0.38 
0.46 


0.26 
0.31 
0.33 
0.38 
0.50 
1.86 
1.35 


0.23 
0.19 
0.19 
0.18 
0.38 
0.38 
0.41 


0.12 
0.08 
0.16 
0.15 
0  25 
0.28 
0.01 


2.82 

2.37 

2.36 

2.12 

1.79 

0  28 

0.30 

0.31 

0.81 

0.16 
0.09 
0.13 
0.17 
0.39 
0.07 
0.22 


GRAIN  AND  SEEDS. 


Wheat  1.77 


Hy( 
Barley 


Maize 

Millet 

SDrsrhiim  . . . 
Buckwheat 
Flax-seed. ., 
Homp-seed 


Vetches 
Beans  .. 


1.73 
2.18 


Oats 2.64 


1.2:3 
1.23 
1.60 
0.92 
3  22 
4.81 
2  42 
2.07 
2.96 


0.55 

0.06 

0.54 

0.03 

0.48 

0.06 

0.42 

0.10 

0.33 

0.02 

0.23 

0.07 

0.42 

0  05 

0.21 

0.06 

1.04 

0.06 

0.97 

0.04 

0.08 

0.09 

0.63 

0.22 

1.20 

0.04 

0.22 
0.19 
0.18 
0.18 
0.18 
0.23 
0.24 
0.12 
0.42 
0.27 
0.19 
0.18 
0.20 


0.06 
0.05 
0  05 
0.10 
0.03 

6' 02 
0.03 
0.27 
1.13 
0.12 
0.06 
0.15 


0.82 
0.82 
0.72 
0.55 
0.55 
0  66 
0.81 
0.44 
1.30 
1.75 
0.88 
0.79 
1.16 


0.04 
0.04 
0.05 
0.04 
O.Ol 
0.02 

6!  02 
0.04 
0.01 
0.08 
0.09 
0.15 


0.03 

0.03 

0.59 

... 

1.23 

0.03 

6!i2 

0.02 

0.04 

0  57 

0.01 

0.02 

0.0<5 

0  04 

0.02 

0.04 

0.08 

0.15 
0.17 
0.14 
0.17 
0.12 


0.17 
6. 24 
0^23 


MANUFACTURED  PRODUCTS. 


Wheat  bran  . . . 

Kye  bran 

Brewers'  grain 
Malt  sprouts... 

Rape  cake 

Linseed  cake  .. 
Walnut  cake  . . 
Cotton-seedcake 


5.56 

1.33 

0.03 

0.94 

0.20 

2.88 

006 

\  7.14 

1.93 

0.09 

1.13 

0.25 

3.42 

1.20 

0.05 

0.01 

0.12 

0.14 

0.46 

0.01 

0.39 

.... 

:  5.96 

2.08 

0.08 

0.09 

1.25 

0.88 

1  77 

5  00 

1.36 

0.01 

0.64 

0  61 

2.07 

0.19 

0.49 

0.01 

5.52 

1.29 

0.08 

0.88 

0.47 

1.94 

0.19 

0.36 

0  03 

1  4.64 

1.54 

0.57 

0.31 

2.03 

0.05 

0.07 

0  01 

6.15 

2.18 

.... 

0.26 

0.28 

2.95 

0.07 

0.25 

42  FEEDIN(i   ANIMALS. 

The  above  table  is  somewhat  extended,  but  as  the  feeder 
often  desires  to  know  the  mineral  constituents  of  his  fod  • 
der,  he  will  find  this  in  convenient  form  for  ascertaining 
the  precise  character  of  the  mineral  substances,  and  thr, 
quantity  he  is  furnishing  daily  to  his  stock. 

Respiratory  Food. — But  as  these  preliminary  chaptei.s 
are  given  to  sliow  the  parallel  between  the  nitrogenous  ana 
mineral  elements  of  plants  and  animals,  we  must  also  ex- 
plain those  non-nitrogenized  substances,  starch,  gum,  sugar, 
etc.,  which  are  not  found  in  the  animal  body,  although 
animals  eat  large  quantities  of  starch,  gum,  sugar,  ana 
cellulose,  and  they  are  necessary  for  the  life  of  the  animal. 
What  becomes  of  these  substances  ?  Science  has  proved 
that  they  are  used  to  support  respiration.  Leibig  has 
named  starch,  gum,  sugar,  cellulose,  etc., — composed  of  car- 
bon  and  water  only — the  pjnnciples  of  respiration.  Let  us 
illustrate  this.  If  we  slake  a  little  burnt  lime  with  water 
and  allow  the  undissolved  lime  to  settle,  then  pour  off  the 
clear  lime  water ;  and  if  we  then  breathe  through  a  glass 
tube  into  this  clear  lime  water,  the  liquid  soon  becomes 
milky,  and  after  a  little  a  white  powder  may  be  seen  falling 
to  the  bottom  of  the  glass  vessel.  This  proves  that  by 
breathing  into  lime  water  we  add  something  to  it.  Chem- 
ists know  that  carbonic  acid  has  a  great  affinity  for  lime, 
with  which  it  forms  a  white,  insoluble  powder — carbonate 
of  lime.  Thus,  while  breathing,  animals  are  constantly 
throwing  off  the  carbon  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid,  and 
this  carbon  is  derived  from  the  starch,  etc.,  of  the  food. 
Leibig  has  calculated  that  a  horse,  during  twenty-four 
hours,  throws  off  four  to  five  pounds  of  carbon.  Animals 
require  food  containing  a  large  amount  of  starch  to  supply 
this  element  of  respiration. 

This  was  the  accepted  theory  of  scientists  to  a  very 
recent  period.  Now,  however,  as  we  have  explained  else- 
where, it  is  believed  that  the  oxidation  of  the  carbon  of  tho 


RESPIRATORY   FOOD.  43 

food  takes  place  in  the  cells  and  the  capillaries  of  the  body 
instead  of  the  lungs,  and  that  animal  heat  is  thus  generated 
all  over  the  body.  This  shows  the  same  necessity  for  car- 
bonaceous food  as  the  first  theory,  and  as  this  effete  matter 
from  the  combustion  of  the  carbon  in  the  cells  and  capil- 
laries is  constantly  thrown  off  at  the  lungs,  it  may,  al- 
though not  strictly  correct,  be  called  the  food  of  respiration. 

Here,  then,  we  find  one  important  use  for  starch,  gum, 
and  sugar  in  food  ;  these  being  composed  entirely  of 
carbon  and  water,  are  so  simple  in  combination  that  the 
carbon  is  easily  separated,  and  therefore  are  admirably 
adapted  to  generate  animal  heat.  If  the  food  is  de- 
ficient in  starch,  gum,  or  sugar,  but  contains  fat,  then 
fat  is  used  to  supply  carbon.  Albuminoids  also  contain 
carbon ;  and  when  there  is  no  other  resource  for  this 
element  of  combustion,  albuminoids  are  decomposed  to 
supply  the  carbon  required ;  but  herbivorous  animals 
do  not  thrive  when  fed  wholly  upon  nitrogenous  food. 
For  this  reason,  foods  very  rich  in  albuminoids  should 
not  be  fed  alone — that  is  peas,  or  oil-meal  should  always 
be  mixed  with  hay,  straw,  turnips,  or  other  roots  rich 
in  starch,  sugar,  etc.  Fatty  substances  differ  from  starch, 
gum,  and  sugar,  simply  in  containing  more  hydrogen 
than  is  necessary  to  form  Avater  with  the  oxygen  present. 
Fatty  matters  are  thus  not  so  easily  decomposed  to  furnish 
the  necessary  carbon  as  the  starchy  compounds. 

It  becomes  evident  from  the  points  discussed,  that  the 
health  of  animals  cannot  be  sustained  without  a  mixed 
diet ;  that  the  food  given  in  order  to  keep  the  animal  in 
health  must  contain :  1.  Starch,  gum,  sugar,  or  cellulose, 
to  supply  the  carbon  given  off  in  respiration.  2.  Fat,  or 
fatty  oil,  to  supply  the  fatty  matter  which  exists  in  all 
animal  bodies.  3.  Gluten,  albumen,  legumen,  or  casein, 
to  make  up  for  the  natural  waste  of  the  muscles  and  car- 
tilages, and  to  grow  this  part  of  the  system  of  the  young 


44  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

animal.  4.  Earthy  phosphates,  to  supply  the  growth  and 
waste  of  the  bones  ;  and  5.  Saline  substances — sulphates 
and  chlorides — to  replace  what  is  daily'  excreted.  It  is 
therefore  plain,  that  that  food  is  best  which  has  the 
greatest  variety  of  constituents.  The  skillful  feeder  must 
have  a  practical  knowledge  of  all  these  principles,  and  will 
not  attempt  to  maintain  his  stock  on  one  kind  of  food,  or 
upon  any  ration  that  does  not  contain  all  these  elements 
abundantly.  He  will  make  it  a  point  to  give  as  great  a 
variety  as  his  circumstances  will  permit,  that  he  may  fully 
supply  his  animal's  wants  and  tastes. 

This  statement  of  the  fundamental  principles  upon 
which  cattle  feeding  is  based,  seemed  necessary  to  a  com- 
I)lete  understanding  of  all  the  points  that  will  arise  in  the 
treatment  of  the  subjects  proposed. 


DIGESTlOif.  46 


CHAPTER  III. 

DIGESTION. 

In  a  work  upon  practical  feeding,  it  maybe  thought  un- 
necessary to  go  into  the  physiology  of  digestion,  but  every 
intelligent  feeder  should  understand  the  general  principles 
that  underlie  his  business ;  and  the  process  of  digestion 
would  seem  to  be  the  fundamental  principle  of  animal  pro- 
duction. We  do  not  propose  to  go  into  any  elaborate  dis- 
cussion of  this  subject,  but  merely  to  touch  upon  such 
general  points  as  will  give  the  reader  some  idea  of  the 
general  process  of  digestion. 

Digestion  Begins  in  the  Mouth— Mastication,  Salivary  Glands, 
AND  the  Saliva. 

The  mouth  is  the  vesti])ule  of  the  alimentary  canal. 
Here  are  crushed  all  the  alimentary  substances,  which  are 
often  very  hard,  resisting  and  rough,  and  nature  has  pro- 
vided a  very  thick  epidermis  to  cover  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  mouth,  and  protect  it  from  injury  in  those  parts 
that  come  in  contact  with  these  rough,  hard  substances,  as 
on  the  upper  surface  of  the  tongue,  palate,  roof  of  the 
mouth,  and  the  cheeks.  And  it  is  in  this  mucous  mem- 
brane covering  the  tongue  that  are  situated  those  small  or- 
gans of  taste,  that  give  perception  of  flavors,  thus  exciting 
a  desire  for  food,  and  no  doubt  informs  the  animal  of  the 
good  or  bad  quality  of  the  food. 

The  saliva  is  secreted  by  glands  situated  around  the 
cavity  of  the  cheeks,  and  this  fluid  softens  the  food, 
assists   in  its  mastication  and  digestion,  and  must  have 


46  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

some  chemical  action  upon  the  food  after  it  reaches  the 
stomach. 

A  gland  may  be  defined  as  an  organ,  the  function  of 
which  is  to  separate  from  the  blood  some  particuhir  sub- 
stance, and  discharge  it  through  an  excretory  duct,  whose 
internal  surface  is  continuous  with  the  mucous  membrane. 
A  simple  gland  is  merely  a  follicle  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane, and  a  collection  of  these  follicles  is  a  compound 
.2;land,  and  if  the  grou^os  of  which  it  is  composed  are 
loosely  bound  together  like  clusters  of  grapes,  it  is  called 
conglomerate,  as  in  the  salivary  glands  ;  but  if  united  into 
a  solid  mass,  such  as  the  liver,  it  is  called  a  conglobate 
gland.  Inside  of  these  follicles  are  cells,  which  are  the 
active  agents  in  the  secreting  process,  whilst  they  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  network  of  capillaries  in  which  the  blood 
circulates  and  furnishes  the  materials  for  these  secretions. 
These  cells  are  so  minute  as  to  require  the  aid  of  a  micro- 
scope for  their  examination. 

The  salivary  glands  are  five  in  number — four  of  them  in 
pairs  :  1.  The  parotid  gland,  which  is  much  the  largest,  is 
situated  at  the  posterior  angle  of  the  lower  jaw,  or  near 
the  ear.  2.  The  maxillary  or  sub-maxillary  gland  is  on  the 
interior  central  border  under  the  lower  jaw.  3.  The  sub- 
lingual gland  is  situated  under  the  tongue.  4.  The  molar 
glands  are  situated  parallel  to  the  molar  arches.  5.  The 
labial  (or  lip  glands)  and  the  palatine  glands  (under  mu- 
cous covering  of  the  soft  palate),  these  latter  -^re  mostly 
single  follicles,  and  each  has  a  separate  excretory  duct  dis- 
charging its  secretion  into  the  mouth.  The  saliva  is  an 
extremely  watery  fluid,  having  only  from  G  to  8  parts  of 
solid  matter  in  1,000  parts,  but  this  solid  or  saline  matter 
plays  an  important  part  in  digestion.  There  is  an  ac- 
tive ferment,  called  ptyalin,  in  saliva,  which,  although 
found  in  very  small  proportion,  possesses  the  property  of 
changing   starch  into  sugar  in  the  process  of  digestion. 


DIGESTION".  47 

thus  rendering  it  soluble.  The  constitution  of  the  saliva 
is  also  slightly  alkaline,  and  more  so  while  the  animal  is 
masticating  its  food.  A  horse  or  an  ox  is  supposed  to  dis- 
cliarge  about  two  quarts  of  saliva  in  a  half  hour  whilst 
masticating  its  food.  This  is  sufficient  to  insalivate  a  small 
ration  of  hay,  or  what  the  animal  could  masticate  in  that 
time.  The  mere  sight  of  food  excites  the  flow  of  saliva, 
causing  the  mouth  to  '^  water,"  and  the  harder  and  drier 
the  food  the  more  the  saliva  will  flow  during  mastication. 
It.  is  also  found  that  after  swallowing  even  sloppy  food  saliva 
will  continue  to  flow  into  the  mouth.  The  saliva  must  be 
considered  a  most  important  factor  in  the  process  of  diges- 
tion. And  for  this  reason  tJie  food  of  ruminants  is  best 
given  in  such  form  as  to  insure  its  remastication.  This  is 
accomplished  by  mixing  finely-ground  food  with  fibrous 
fodder,  causing  both  to  be  raised  in  the  cud  and  remasti- 
cated.  The  proper  preparation  of  dry  fodder  by  chopping 
in  a  cutter,  as  an  aid  to  mastication  and  digestion,  will  be 
considered  in  a  future  chapter. 

STOMA.CH    OF    SOLIPEDS. 

The  stomach  of  the  horse  (fig.  1)  is  a  membranous  sac 
si;:uated  on  the  left  side  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  close  be- 
iiind  the  diaphragm;  has  the  spleen  attached  to  its  left 
extremity,  and  its  lower  part  covered  with  the  caul.  It  has 
been  compared  in  shape  to  the  Scotch  bag-pipes.  It  is  so 
situated  that  every  contraction  of  the  diaphragm,  or  inspir- 
ation of  air,  displaces  or  drives  it  back,  and  the  fuller  the 
stomach,  tlie  greater  the  labor  of  the  diaphragm  under 
quick  motion  and  frequent  breathing,  hence  a  full  meal  or 
large  draft  of  water  should  never  be  given  just  before  great 
exertion  or  rapid  movement.  The  stomach  of  an  average 
sized  horse  holds  only  about  three  gallons.  It  has  four 
coats.  The  outside  coat  lines  the  cavity  of  the  belly,  and 
is  the  common  covering  of  all  the  intestines,  and  this  coat 
secretes  a  fluid  which  prevents  all  friction  between  it  and 


48 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


the  intestines.     This  is  called  the  perito7ieum,  and  stretches 
around  the  inside  of  the  stomach. 

The  second  is  the  muscular  coat,  composed  of  two  layers 
of  fibers,  one  running  lengthways  and  the  other  circularly, 
and  the  contraction  of  these  muscles  gWe  a  gentle  motion 
to  the  stomach,  mingling  the  food  more  completely  to- 
gether, and  facilitating  the  intermixture  of  the  gastric 
juice  ;  and  these  muscles  also  force  the  food,  when  properly 
prepared,  into  the  intestine. 


Fig.  1.— STOMACH  AND  INTESTINES   OP  THE   HORSE. 

A.  The  lower  part  of  the  oe<;ophagas  or  j^ullet. 

n.  The  stomach  hiid  open  to  show  a,  the  cuticuhir,  and  &,  the  villous  coat. 

C.  The  duodenum  or  first  small  intestine,  laid  open  to  show  the  mouths  of  ducts 

leadini^  from  the  liver  and  pancreas. 
J),  D.  The  small  intestines. 

K,  E.  The  colon,  showing  its  convolutions,  foldint;s  and  bands. 
F.  The  caecum,  the  principal  receptacle  for  water. 

Ct.  The  rectum.  ,   ,    ,,. 

//.  The  mesentery,  the  folds  of  the  peritoneum  inclosing  the  intestines  and  liolding 

them  in  place. 


STOMACHS   OF   SOLIPEDS.  49 

The  third,  or  cuticular  coat  {B,  a,  fig.  1),  covers  only  a 
portion  of  the  inside  of  the  stomach,  and  is  a  continuation 
of  the  lining  of  the  oesophagus  or  gullet.  It  contains  num- 
erous glands  which  secrete  a  mucus  fluid.  It  covers  about 
one-half  of  the  inside  of  the  stomach. 

The  fourth  is  the  mucus  or  villous  (velvet)  coat  {B,  h), 
which  secretes  the  gastric  juice,  and  here  true  digestion 
commences.  The  mouths  of  the  numerous  little  vessels, 
upon  this  coat,  pour  out  this  digesting  fluid,  which  mixes 
with  the  food  and  converts  it  into  chyme.  After  being  con- 
verted into  chyme  it  passes  the  orifice  called  pylorus  (mean- 
ing doorkeeper)  and  enters  the  small  intestines;  the  hard  or 
undissolved  part  of  the  food  being  turned  back  to  undergo 
further  action. 

Stomachs  of  Rumixaxts  and  Their  Functign-s. 

The  peculiarities  in  form  of  the  digestive  organs  of  the 
different  classes  of  our  domestic  animals  should  be  well 
understood.  And,  having  explained  and  illustrated  that 
of  the  horse,  ass  and  mule,  called  solipeds,  we  now  illustrate 
and  explain  the  more  complicated  digestive  organs  of 
ruminants.  The  illustrations  answer  equally  well  for  cattle 
and  sheep.  There  are  very  slight  differences  in  the  position 
of  the  organs,  but  this  is  not  material  to  an  understanding 
of  the  process  of  digestion  in  both.  Fig.  2  was  drawn  by 
Prof.  James  Law  for  the  Live  StnrJc  Journal,  and  we  also 
give  his  written  description  of  the  stomachs  of  ruminants. 
Fig.  3  is  the  external  appearance  of  the  stomach  of  a  young 
sheep,  taken  from  Dr.  Randall's  *'  Sheep  Husbandry  of 
the  South."  Fig.  4  is  an  illustration  of  the  internal 
appearance  of  the  stomachs  given  by  the  learned  author, 
Youatt. 

Professor  Law,  who  stands  in  t^ie  front  rank  of  compara- 
tive physiologists,  after  speaking  of  the  great  variety  in  the 
f(jrm  and  arrangement  of  the  digestive  organs  of  different 
a 


50  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

classes  of  animals,  and  that  these  varied  forms  bear  a  strict 
relation  to  the  habits  of  the  animal  and  the  condition  in 
which  it  lives,  says  : 

"The  flesh  feeders  possess  a  very  capacious  stomach,  in 
which  the  highly  nitrogenous  food  is  long  retained  and 
digested  by  the  secretions  of  the  gastric  glands.  The 
bowels  are  short  and  of  small  capacity,  in  accordance  with 
the  restricted  amount  of  other  ingredients  in  the  food 
which  are  soluble  in  the  intestinal  liquids.  In  the  herbiv- 
ora,  on  the  other  hand,  which  subsist  on  food  rich  in 
carbo-hydrates  and  comparatively  poor  in  albuminoids,  the 
true  digesting  stomach  is  small  and  the  intestines  enor- 
mously long  and  capacious.  The  capacity  of  the  stomach 
of  the  dog  is  three-fifths  of  that  of  the  entire  gastro- 
intestinal canal,  whereas  that  of  the  horse  is  only  about  two- 
twenty-fifths  of  the  abdominal  part  of  the  alimentary 
tube. 

"  At  first  sight  the  ruminant  appears  to  be  an  exception 
to  this  rule,  as  the  gastric  cavities  amount  to  no  less 
than  seven-tenths  of  the  abdominal  part  of  tlie  digestive 
canal ;  but  this  idea  is  dispelled  by  the  consideration  that 
the  fourth  or  true  digestive  stomach,  which  alone  corre- 
sponds to  that  of  the  horse  or  dog,  is  relatively  as  small  as 
in  the  solipede.  The  first  three  stomachs  are  mainly 
macerating  and  triturating  cavities,  in  which  the  coarse 
and  imperfectly  masticated  herbage  is  stored,  triturated 
and  partially  dissolved,  while  waiting  for  the  second  mas- 
tication, or  for  its  reception  by  the  fourth  or  true  stomach. 

'-  First  Stomach. — Of  the  four  compartments  or  stom- 
achs, the  first  [paunch,  rumen)  is  incomparably  the  largest. 
It  has  an  average  capacity  of  250  quarts,  in  the  ox,  and 
makes  up  about  nine-tenths  of  the  mass  of  the  four 
stomachs.  It  occupies  the  entire  left  side  of  the  abdomen, 
from  the  short  ribs  in  front  to  the  hip  bones  behind,  so 


STOMACHS   OF   RUMrXANTS.  61 

that  if  this  side  of  the  belly  were  punctured  at  any  point, 
this  organ  alone  would  be  entered.  It  is  marked  externally 
by  a  deep  notch  at  each  end,  and  by  two  grooves  connect- 
ing these  on  the  upper  and  lower  surfaces  respectively, 
together  with  smaller  grooves  diverging  from  these,  on 
each  side.  These  notches  and  grooves  correspond  to  inter- 
nal folds  supported  by  strong  muscular  bands,  and  par- 
tially dividing  the  cavity  into  a  right  and  left  sac,  and 
into  anterior,  posterior,  and  median  compartments.  The 
entire  inner  surface  of  this  orga-n,  excepting  the  muscular 
pillars,  and  a  small  portion  of  the  left  anterior  sac  border- 
ing on  the  second  stomach,  is  thickly  covered  by  papilla, 
most  of  which  are  flattened  and  leaf-like,  with  an  elongated 
ovate  outline,  but  some  are  conical  or  fungiform,  especially 
in  the  left  sac. 

"Second  Stomach.— T\\q  second  stomach  {honetj-comh- 
harj,  reticulum),  though  spoken  of  as  a  separate  organ,  is 
rather  a  simple  prolongation  forward  of  the  anterior  left 
sac  of  the  r.umen.  It  is  separated  from  the  rumen  by  a 
rather  prominent  fold,  but  the  communicating  opening  is 
so  large  that  the  semi-liquid  contents  pass  freely" from  the 
one  cavity  to  the  other  during  the  movements  of  the 
stomachs.  Its  most  prominent  characteristic  is  the  alve- 
olated  or  honey-comb-like  arrangement  of  its  mucous  mem- 
brane. These  cells  vary  in  size  and  depth,  being  largest 
at  the  lower  part  of  the  organ  and  smaller  at  the  upper,  or 
where  it  joins  the  paunch.  They  extend  for  a  short  dis- 
tance on  the  surface  of  that  oi-gan  as  well.  The  larger 
cells  are  again  subdivided  by  smaller  partitions  in  their 
interior.  The  walls  of  these  cells  are  covered  throughout 
by  small,  hard-pointed  papillary  eminences.  These  cells 
usually  entangle  many  small,  hard  and  pointed  bodies 
which  have  been  swallowed  with  the  food,  and  it  is  from 
this  point  that  such  bodies  often  pass  to  perforate  vital 
organs,  especially  the  heart. 


52 


FEEDING    ANIMALS. 


Fig.   2.— THIRD  AND  FOURTH  STOMACHS, 

As  drawn  by  Professor  Law,  showing  the  course  of  the  CEsovihagean  Demi-canal. 

t.  Gullet. 

2.  Portion  of  the  paunch,  showing  the  villous  surface. 

'i.  Portion  of  the  reticulum,  showing  the  cells. 

4.  ffisophagean  demi-canal,  with  its  muscular  pillars  relaxed  so  as  to  show  the 

opening  into  the  gullet  above  and  that  leading  into  the  manifolds  below. 
.').  Opening  from  the  demi-canal  into  the  third  stomach, 
ti.  Third  stomach  laid  open,  showing  the  leaves. 

7.  Floor  of  the  third  stomach,  along  which  fmely-divided  food  passes  to  tlie  fourth. 

8.  P'ourth  stomach  opened,  and  showing  the  mucous  folds. 
!).  Commencement  of  the  small  intestines. 


STOMACHS    OF    RUMIXANTS.  53 

^^ G^sophagecui  Demi-canal. — Connectiii^,^  these  organs  with 
the  gullet  on  the  one  hand  and  the  third  stomach  on  the 
other,  is  the  demi-canal,  one  of  the  most  interesting  struc- 
tures in  the  whole  economy.  It  may  be  conceived  of  as 
the  lower  portion  of  the  gullet,  extending  from  right  to 
left  across  the  superior  surface  of  the  anterior  left  sac  of 
the  paunch  and  the  reticulum  as  far  as  the  entrance  of  the 
third  stomach.  But  in  place  of  its  forming  a  perfect  tube, 
as  elsewhere,  the  lower  half  of  its  walls  is  removed  so  as  to 
leave  a  large  opening  of  about  six  inches  in  length,  com- 
municating with  the  rumen  and  reticulum.  The  margins 
of  this  opening  are  formed  of  thick  pillars,  made  up  largely 
of  muscular  tissue,  in  part  forming  loops  around  the  ends 
of  the  canal,  and  in  part  diverging  on  the  walls  of  the  first 
two  stomachs.  This  muscle  encircles  the  entire  ovoid 
opening,  and,  when  contracted,  brings  its  lips  in  close 
opposition,  shutting  off  all  communication  between  the 
gullet  and  first  two  stomachs,  and  securing  a  continuous, 
unbroken  passage  from  the  mouth  to  the  third  stomach. 
When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  muscular  pillars  of  the 
demi-canal  are  relaxed,  the  canal  remains  open,  and  there 
is  no  barrier  to  communication  between  the  gullet  and  first 
two  stomachs,  or  between  these  stomachs  and  the  third. 

"  Third  Stomach. — The  third  stomach  {manifolds,  oma- 
sum), a  little  larger  than  the  reticulum  in  the  ox,  lies  over 
that  organ  to  its  right,  and  above  the  right  anterior  sac  of 
the  rumen.  Its  main  characteristic  is  the  leaf-like  arrange- 
ment of  its  interior.  From  its  walls  on  the  convex  aspect 
twelve  or  fourteen  folds  extend  (piite  to  the  opposite  side 
of  the  viscus.  In  the  intervals  between  these  are  an  equal 
number  of  folds  of  about  half  the  length.  On  each  side  of 
these  are  others  still  shorter,  and  so  on  until  the  smallest, 
which  appear  as  simple  ridges  on  the  mucous  membrane.  In 
this  way  the  flat  surfaces  of  the  folds  are  brought  into  close 
relation  at  all  points  in  place  of  leaving  large  intervals  at 


54 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


the  convex  aspect  of  the  organ,  as  would  be  the  case  if  all 
were  of  the  same  length.  These  leases  are  not  simple 
folds  of  mucous  membrane,  but  contain  also  muscular 
tissue  continued  from  the  coat  ot  the  stomach,  and  enab- 
ling the  adjacent  leaves  to  moYe  on  each  other  fur  tlie 
trituration  of  the  intervening  food.     Each  leaf  is  studded. 


Fig.  3.— EXTERNAL  APPEARANCE  OF    STOMACHS. 

a.  The  oesopluigus  or  pullet,  entering  the  rumen  or  paunch. 

b.  h.  The  rumen,  or  paunch,  occupying  three-fourths  of  the  abdomen. 

c.  The  reticulum  or  honey-comb— the' second  stomach. 

d.  Ttie  omasum  or  manifolds— third  stomach. 

e.  The  abomasum  or  fourth  stomach. 

/.  The  commencement  of  the  duodenum  or  first  intestine. 

fj.  The  place  of  the  pylorus,  a  valve  which  separates  the  contents  of  the  abomasuoi 
and  duodenum. 


STOMACHS   OF    KUMINANTS.  55 

on  both  sides  with  hard  conical  papiUaj  liooked  upward, 
and  especially  prominent  towards  the  free  margin  of  the 
fold  in  the  vicinity  of  the  passage  from  the  demi-canal  to 
the  fourth  stomach.  Similar  hooks  with  a  corresponding 
direction  are  found  in  the  lower  part  of  the  demi-canal, 
and  all  concur  in  drawing  the  food  upward  between  the 
folds  and  retaining  it  until  sufficiently  tine  to  escape.  This 
organ  lies  beneath  the  short  ribs  on  the  right  side. 

"Foicrth  Stomach. — The  fourth  or  true  digesting  stomacli 
(rennet,  ahomat^um)  is  pear-shaped,  Avith  the  thick  end 
forward,  and  connected  with  the  manifolds.  It  extends 
backward  in  the  right  flank  along  the  lower  border  of  tlie 
rumen,  and  terminates  by  a  narrow  opening  in  the  small 
intestine.  It  is  considerably  larger  than  either  the  second 
or  third  stomach,  but  incomparably  smaller  than  the  first. 
Its  outer  surface  shows  a  number  of  spiral  markings  run- 
ning around  it  longitudinally,  and  corresponding  to  exten- 
sive loose  folds  of  mucous  membrane,  as  observed  when  it 
is  laid  open.  Its  outer  surface  is  redder  and  more  vascular 
than  that  of  the  other  stomachs,  but  its  inner  lining  or 
mucous  membrane  is  especially  soft,  spongy  and  vascular, 
forming  a  marked  contrast  with  the  pale,  opaque,  thick  and 
insensible  mucous  membrane  lining  the  other  stomachs. 
When  magnitied,  this  vascular  surface  presents  throughout 
a  close  aggregation  of  small  depressions  or  alveoli  leading 
into  the  glandular  follicles  which  secrete  the  gastric  juice. 

"  Functions, — The  progress  of  food  through  the  different 
stomachs  can  now  be  followed.  It  is  a  wide-spread  belief 
that  all  food  taken  by  the  ox  passes  first  into  the  rumen, 
from  which  it  is  propelled  into  the  reticulum,  is  then  sent 
back  to  the  mouth  for  the  second  mastication,  and  is  finally 
swallowed  a  second  time,  passing  in  this  case  into  the  third 
and  fourth  stomachs.  No  such  regular  and  invariable 
course  is  pursued.     After  the  first  mastication,  in  which 


56  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

the  food  receives  a  few  strokes  of  the  jaws,  and  is  mixed 
with  a  quantity  of  saliva  varying  according  to  the  hard  or 
librous  character  of  the  aliment,  it  is  swallowed  and  passes 
into  the  lirst  and  second,  the  third  or  even  the  fourth 
stomach.  Flourens  first  showed  this  on  the  sheep,  and 
his  observations  have  been  fully  corroborated  by  subsequent 
observers.  1st.  He  fed  green  lucern  to  a  sheep,  and  killing 
it  immediately  after,  found  this  aliment  mainly  in  the 
paunch,  a  small  quantity  in  the  reticulum,  and  none  in  the 
third  and  fourth  stomachs.  2d.  He  fed  oats  with  the  same 
results.  3d.  Small  pieces  of  roots  swallowed  without  mas- 
tication were  found  only  in  the  first  two  stomachs.  Ith. 
Finally,  after  feeding  pulped  roots,  he  found  the  greater 
part  in  the  rumen,  but  a  considerable  amount  also  in  the 
second,  third  and  fourth  stomachs.  It  follows  that  while 
all  coarse,  bulky  or  fibrous  aliment  passes  at  once  into  the 
first  two  stomachs,  finely  divided  food  may  gain  the  third 
or  even  the  fourth  without  retention  in  either  of  the 
preceding  ones. 

"Liquids  have  been  found  to  follow  a  similar  course 
with  finely  divided  moist  food,  the  greater  part  passing  at 
once  into  the  rumen  and  reticulum,  while  a  certain  amount 
passes  at  once  through  the  a3sophagean  demi-canal  to  the 
third  and  fourth  stomachs.  Another  feature  of  the  passage 
of  liquids  is  the  propulsion  of  the  fluid  from  the  second 
stomach  through  the  demi-canal  into  the  third  and  fourth. 
This  is  effected  through  a  series  of  contractions  of  the 
reticulum,  and  takes  place  while  drinking  is  going  on,  the 
organ  being  rapidly  filled  up  by  the  water  descending  from 
the  mouth,  as  often  as  it  may  be  emptied  by  its  contrac- 
tions. This  may  also  serve  to  explain  how  liquids  and 
finely  divided  food  pass  on  from  the  first  two  stomachs  to 
the  third  and  fourth,  without  having  been  returned  to  the 
mouth  for  rumination.  The  enormous  accumulation  of 
food  in  the  paunch   is   surprising.     It   is  no  uncommon 


STOMACHS   OF   nUMlNANTS. 


67 


tiling  to  find  150  to  "200  pounds,  and  this  though  the 
animal  has  been  fasting  for  twenty-four  hours.  This  mass 
represents  but  40  to  50  pounds  of  solid  dry  food,  tlie 
remainder   being   saliva   carried   with    it   in    deglutition. 


Fiff.  4.— INTERNAL   APPEARANCE  OF  STOMACHS   (YOUATT). 

a.  The  (rsoplmirns  or  iriiUet. 

b.  The  coiiimtMicemei.t  of  the  irsophagean  canal,  slit  open,  with  muscular  pillars 

undt-nieath. 

c.  ;,  c.  The  rumen,  paunch  or  first  stomach,  slit  open, 
rf.  The  reticulum  or  hoiiey-comb,  slit  open. 

e.   The  omasum  or  manifolds,  slit  open. 
/.    The  abomasum,  slit  open. 

U.  The  commencement  ot  the  duodenum  or  first  intestine. 
h.  The  duodenum,  slit  open, 
j,  m,  /.  Wands,  showinij  the  course  of  ccsophagean  cannl,  opening  of  stomachs,  etc. 


o8  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

After  drinking,  the  proportion  of  water  is  materially  in- 
creased.    In  the  normal  condition,  the  solids  float  in  the 
liquid  and  are  kept  loose,  open  and  mobile,  one  part  on 
another  by  its  intermixture.     The  reticulum  usually  con- 
tains a  certain  amount  of  liquid,  and  but  little  solid  food. 
''  These  organs  move  by  slow  contractions  from  end  to 
end,  which  gives  a  churning  motioTi   to  the  contents,  and 
forces  the  liquids  continually  through  the  semi-solid  mass. 
In  this  way,  tne  transformation  of  starch  into  sugar  by 
the   action  of  the  saliva  is  fjivored,  and  all  soluble  con- 
stituents  (sugar,  gluten,  albumen,  salts,  acids,   etc.),   are 
dissolved  out,  and  are  sooner  or  later  passed  on  into  the 
fourth   stomach   with    the   liquid    solvent.     Besides   these 
solvent  and  chemical  actions,  the  food  undergoes  macera- 
tion, softening,  and  disintegration,  and  is  thus  prepared 
for  subsequent  easy  and  ]:>erfect  mastication  and  digestion. 
'' Rumination. — Concisely   stated,  this    consists   in   the 
return  of  food  from  the  first  two  stomachs  to  the  mouth, 
its  mastication,  and  its  swallowing  and  descent  to  any  one 
or  more  of  the  four  stomachs.     Popular  writers  have  been 
generally   misled    l)y   the   doctrine   of    Flourens    on   this 
matter.     He  opened  the  gullet  in  a  sheep,  allowing   the 
escape  of  the  saliva  which  should  have  floated  the  contents 
of  the  rumen,  and  when  he  found  these  contents  firm  and 
solid,  and  a  little  ovoid  solid  mass  between  the  lips  of  the 
(I'sophagean  demi-ciinal,  he  concluded  that  this  was  the 
form  in  which  food  was  returned  into  the  mouth.     One 
fact  should  have  forbidden  such  a  conclusion — his  sheep 
never  ruminated  nor  brought  up  anything    to  ruminate. 
The  truth  is  this,  that  the  solid  packed  state  of  the  food 
in  the  rumen,  such   as  he  found,  is   an   insurmountable 
barrier  to  chewing  the  cud.     Whether  this  is  produced  by 
suppressed  secretion  of  saliva,  by  salivary  fistula  with  the 
discharge  of  this  liquid  externally,  or  by  the  simple  forced 
abstinence  from  water,  the  result  is  the  same.     Whenever 


RUMIKATIOK.  59 

the  food  fails  to  float  loosely  in  the  liquid,  and  becomes 
aggregated  in  a  firm,  unbroken  mass,  rumination  becomes 
impossible. 

"If  we  watch  the  ox  ruminating  it  will  be  seen  that 
when  a  cud  is  brought  up,  the  act  is  immediately  followed 
by  a  swallowing  of  liquid,  after  which  the  animal  begins 
leisurely  to  chew  the  solid  matters.  These  loose  solids  are 
floated  up  in  a  quantity  of  liquid,  both  having  flowed  into 
the  demi-canal  during  the  compression  of  the  stomach, 
and  been  returned  to  the  mouth  by  the  contraction  of  this 
canal  and  of  the  gullet  in  a  direction  from  below  upward. 
On  reaching  the  mouth  the  solids  are  seized  between  the 
tongue  and  palate,  and  the  liquids  returned.  If  the  con- 
tents of  the  rumen  are  accumulated  in  firm  masses,  with 
no  detached  floating  material,  it  is  manifest  that  liquid 
only  could  be  brought  up.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
liquids  present  are  only  sufficient  to  impregnate  these 
masses  without  floating  them,  nothing  whatever  can  be 
brought  up.  Like  the  sheep  of  Flourens,  the  subject 
ceases  to  ruminate.  Colin  demonstrated  this  use  of  the 
li(|uid  by  placing  four  stitches  at  the  opening  of  the  demi- 
canal,  so  as  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  pellets,  or  of  any- 
thing but  fluids  and  finely  disintegrated  solids.  Yet  the 
subjects  continued  to  chew  the  cud  as  before. 

"During  rumination  the  already  softened  aliments  are 
still  more  perfectly  broken  down  by  the  teeth,  and  mixed 
with  a  new  secretion  of  saliva,  and  are  thus  better  pre- 
pared for  a  continuance  of  the  chemical  and  mechanical 
changes  which  they  have  already  l)een  undergoing  in  the 
paunch. 

"It  has  not  been  clearly  made  out  to  what  stomach  food 
is  returned  after  rumination.  But  it  may  be  fairly  inferred 
that  like  finely  divided  soft  food,  after  the  first  mastication, 
it  passes  in  varying  proportions  into  all  four  stomachs. 
What  returns  to  the  first  two,  is  no  doubt  returned  in  part 


60  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

to  the  month,  oftener  thciii  once,  and  in  part  followed  the 
known  conrse  of  other  finely  divided  matters  in  being 
propelled  into  the  oesoi^hagen  demi-canal  and  manifolds  by 
the  contractions  of  the  reticulum. 

"The  conditions  essential  to  rumination  are:  1st,  a 
sufficient  plenitude  of  paunch;  2d,  an  abundance  of  water; 
3d,  perfect  quiet — absence  of  all  excitement;  4th,  a  fair 
measure  of  health. 

"The  nse  of  the  third  stomach  is  merely  to  triturate  and 
reduce  still  further  the  food  which  has  been  already  largely 
disintegrated  in  the  first  two  stomachs  and  in  rnmination. 
The  muscular  folds  seize  and  retain  the  solid  particles,  and 
keep  up  the  grinding  process  nntil  the  mass  is  too  fine  to 
be  longer  caught  or  retained  by  the  barbed  papillae.  The 
food  compressed  between  the  muscular  folds  loses  the 
greater  part  of  its  liquid,  so  that  the  contents  are  normal Iv 
firm  and  partially  dry,  though  never  quite  so  in  health. 
When  dried  to  the  extent  of  adhering  to  the  folds  and 
bringing  off  the  cuticular  layer  npon  its  surface,  it  is  to  be 
considered  as  abnormal. 

"The  uses  of  the  fourth  stomach  are  precisely  those  of 
the  true  stomach  in  other  animals.  Its  acid  gastric  juice 
acting  on  the  nitrogenous  elements  of  the  food,  trans- 
f  n-ms  them  into  peptones,  a  fine  milky  liquid,  fitted  to  be 
absorbed  and  added  to  the  yital  fluids.  The  mucous  folds 
in  tliis  stomach,  covered  as  they  are  by  peptic  glands, 
greatly  increase  the  secretions  of  the  digesting  fluid  and 
enable  the  animal  to  digest  promptly  the'  food  so  beauti- 
fully elaborated  and  prepared  by  the  first  three  stomachs 
and  the  act  of  rumination.  These  complicated  processes 
to  which  the  food  is  subjected,  serve  to  account  for  the 
absence  of  fibrous  elements  in  the  dung,  and  for  the  finely 
attenuated  state  of  that  excretion  ;  and  also  for  the  ease 
with  which  ruminants  can  subsist  on  coarse  and  compara- 
tively  innutritions  fodder.      It    explains,   too,   the   com- 


GASTRIC    DIGESTION".  61 

parative  immunity  of  the  fourth  stomach  from  disease, 
while  the  first  throe,  like  the  stomac^i  of  the  horse,  are 
very  obnoxious  to  disorder.  The  possibility  of  incredibly 
long  fasts  oil  the  part  of  the  ruminant,  may  be  explained 
by  the  constant  presence  of  a  large  mass  of  food  in  tlie 
paunch,  for  although  rumination  may  be  almost  or  quite 
suspended,  yet  if  water  is  freely  taken,  small  quantities  are 
continually  transferred  from  the  first  two  stomachs  to  the 
third  and  fourth." 

Gastric  Digestion". — As  before  mentioned,  it  is  in  the 
fourth  stomach  that  true  digestion  begins.  The  innumera- 
ble glands  of  the  stomach  secrete  the  gastric  juice,  and 
when  food  comes  into  this  stomach  the  juice  is  poured  out 
in  large  quantity.  It  has  a  sour  taste  and  smell.  It  con- 
tains muriatic  acid  and  a  little  pepsin.  The  latter  acts 
strongly  upon  the  albuminoids  contained  in  the  food.  It 
makes  them  soluble  in  water,  and  thus  in  condition  to 
enter  into  the  circulation.  The  quantity  of  pepsin  is  very 
small,  but  appears  to  have  the  power  of  acting  over  and 
over  many  times  in  connection  with  the  muriatic  acid  in 
rendering  the  albuminoid  master  soluble.  The  soluble 
carbo-hydrates  (as  we  have  seen  converted  into  sugar  by  the 
saliva)  are  absorbed  by  the  blood-vessels  of  the  stomach 
and  enter  into  the  circulation,  and  the  soluble  albuminoids 
or  protein  is  absorbed  by  the  lymphatic  vessels  of  the 
stomach.  But  there  is  much  of  the  nutriment  in  the  food 
not  liberated  in  the  stomach,  and  all  this  passes  through 
tlie  pylorus  into  the  intestines  (at  G,  fig.  3).  Let  us  ex- 
amine cursorily  : 

Intestixal  Digestion. — The  alimentary  canal  is  con- 
tinued from  the  stomac^  ,  in  the  abdominal  cavity,  by  a 
long  tube  doubled  on  it^^elf  in  many  folds,  and  ends  at  the 
posterior  opening  of  the  digestive  apparatus.  This  long 
tube  is  the  intestine.     It  is  narrow  and  uniform  in  size  in 


63  FEEDIKG  ANIMALS. 

its  anterior  portion,  called  small  intestine,  but  is  irregu- 
larly dilated  in  its  posterior  part,  and  here  called  large 
intestine. 

The  small  intestine  in  the  horse  {D  D,  fig.  1)  is  a  cylindrical 
tube  from  1  to  \%  inches  in  diameter,  and  is  about  24  yards 
long.  The  internal  surface  of  tlie  small  intestine,  like  the 
stomach  and  other  viscera,  is  provided  with  a  muscular 
coat,  and  a  mucous  membrane;  the  former  produces  the 
peristaltic  motion  which  moves  its  contents  along  toward 
the  coecum,  and  the  latter  is  covered  with  glandular  folli- 
cles which  pour  out  a  digestive  fluid — an  alkaline  mucus. 
The  small  intestine  in  its  duodenal  portion  receives  through 
two  orifices  the  bile  and  pancreatic  juice,  and  these  with 
the  intestinal  mucus,  are  constantly  acting  upon  and  com- 
plete the  digestion  of  the  food  passing  through  it.  It  is 
cilso  in  this  intestine  that  the  nutritive  principles  of  the 
food  are  absorbed  and  pass  into  the  general  circulation. 
This  leads  into  the  large  intestine,  which  is  divided,  in  its 
different  portions,  into  the  caecum,  the  large  colon,  small 
colon  and  the  rectum. 

The  coBcum  in  the  horse  {F,  fig.  1)  is  about  3  feet  in  length, 
and  has  a  capacity  of  a  little  over  7  gallons.  This  part  of 
the  large  intestine  furnishes  a  reservoir  for  the  large  quanti- 
ties of  fluid  ingested  by  herbivorous  animals.  Here,  what 
is  left  of  the  assimilable  matters  of  the  food,  is  dissolved 
out  and  enter  into  the  circulation  through  the  absorbents 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  large  intestine. 

The  colon  {E  E)  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  large  and 
small  colon.  The  former  is  from  10  to  13  feet  in  length,  and 
there  contracts  into  the  small  colon.  It  has  a  capacity  for 
holding  18  gallons.  The  small  colon  is  about  twice  the 
diameter  of  the  small  intestine,  and  about  10  feet  in 
length.  The  large  colon  absorbs  fluids  and  soluble  nutri- 
tive matters.  When  the  matters  taken  for  food  reaches  the 
small  colon,  deprived  of  its  assimilable  principles,  the  ex- 


iNTEStlNAL   DifeESTlOK.  63 

cretory  substances  are  here  thrown  (nit  on  the  surface  of 
the  intestinal  tube,  and  it  now  becomes  excrement  or 
fasces.  These  excrements,  compressed  by  the  peristaltic 
contractions  of  the  muscular  coat,  are  rolled  up  into  little 
rounded  masses,  shoved  into  the  rectum,  and  in  due  course 
expelled. 

The  rectum  (6^)  appears  to  be  merely  the  extremity  of 
the  small  colon. 

1.  Intestines  of  Ruminants.— The  small  intestine 
of  the  ox  is  folded  in  a  multitude  of  festoons,  is  twice  the 
length  of  the  small  intestine  of  the  horse — averaging  about 
120  feet — and  is  about  one-half  the  size.  The  large  intes- 
tine is  about  30  feet  in  length,  but  is  less  in  size  than  that 
in  the  horse.  In  the  sheep  the  small  intestine  is  about  70 
feet  long,  and  the  large  intestine  20  feet.  Neither  in  the 
ox  or  sheep  is  there  such  a  marked  distinction  between  the 
small  ahd  large  colon  as  in  the  horse. 

2.  Intestines  of  the  Pig. — The  average  length  of  the 
small  intestine  of  the  pig  is  72  feet,  and  the  large  intestine 
18  feet.  Their  general  disposition  in  the  digestive  cavity 
is  somewhat  simihir  to  those  of  the  ox,*  though  only  the 
last  portion  of  the  colon  is  included  between  the  layers  of 
the  mesentary ;  for  the  rest  of  its  extent  it  is  outside  that 
membrane,  and  forms  a  distinct  mass. 

The  small  intestine  has  a  very  large  peyerian  gland,  oc- 
cupying the  latter  portion  of  the  canal  as  a  band  5  to  6  feet 
long.  This  is  an  aggregation  of  secretory  follicles.  The 
l)ig  is  noted  for  its  capacity  to  digest  and  assimilate  a  very 
large  amount  of  food  in  proportion  to  its  weight  of  body. 
Its  alimentary  canal  shows  how  this  large  amount  of  con- 
centrated food  is  prepared  and  assimilated. 

Lawes  and  Gilbert  made  many  interesting  experiments  in 
feeding  oxen,  sheep,  and  pigs,  and  they  found  that  the  pig 
utilized  his  food  better  than  either  of  the  other  classes  of 


64  FEEDIXa    ANIMALS. 

animals.     And  in  explanation  they  give  the  proportion  of 
the  stomachs,  and  the  content^- as  constitnting : 
"  In  oxen  about  11}4  per  cent,  of  the  entire  weight  of  the  bod)\ 
''  In  sheep  about  73^  per  cent,  of  the  entire  weight  of  the  bodj". 
"  In  pigs  about  l^P^r  cent,  of  the  entire  weight  of  the  body." 

"  The  intestines  and  their  contents,  on  the  other  hand, 
stand  in  the  opposite  relation.  Thus,  of  the  entire  body, 
these  t'lmonnted  : 

"  In  the  pig  to  about  %}^  per  cent. 
"  In  the  sheep  to  about  'A}4  per  cent. 
*'  In  the  oxen  to  about  2%  per  cent." 

These  facts,  they  think,  explain  how  the  rnminant  can 
take  food  with  so  large  a  proportion  of  iiuligestiljle  woody 
fihre,  whilst  the  well-fed  pig  lakes  so  large  a  proportion  of 
starch — that  in  the  latter  the  primary  transformations  are 
supposed  to  occur  ^'chiefly  after  leaving  the  stomach,  and 
more  or  less  throughout  the  intestinal  canal." 

And  as  time  is  a  most  imjiortant  element  in  feeding,  it 
taking  a  given  amount  of  food  to  support  the  life  of  the 
animal  and  waste  of  its  tissues,  and  as  the  pig  can  digest 
and  assimilate  so  much  more  food  in  a  given  time,  in  pro- 
portion to  its  weight  of  body  than  the  ox  or  sheep,  it  has 
so  much  more  nutriment  to  apply  to  an  increase  of  its 
weight,  and  this  may  be  considered  as  an  explanation  of  its 
greater  gain  from  a  given  amount  of  food. 

Other  Organs  axxkxed  to  the  DiGEsTrvE  Canal. 

The* most  important  of  these  are  the  two  glands — the 
liver  iind pancrc((,s,  which  ])our  into  the  intestines  the  bile 
and  pancreatic  juice — also  a  glandiform  organ,  the  spleen, 
as  to  the  office  of  Avliich  i)hysiologists  are  in  doubt. 

The  Liver  is  the  largest  gland  in  the  body,  and  is  situ- 
ated in  the  abdominal  cavity,  to  the  right  of  the  dia- 
phraghm  and  downward  and  adjacent  to  the  stomach,  and 
partly  in  contact  with  them.     The  weight  of   a  healthy 


INTESTINAL   DIGESTION.  65 

liver  ill  a  medium -sized  horse  is  eleven  pounds.  In  its  ex- 
ternal form,  it  is  flattened  before  and  behind,  and  irregu- 
larly lengthened  in  an  eliptical  form,  thick  in  its  center, 
and  thin  towards  its  borders,  which  are  notched  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  divide  it  into  three  principal  lobes.  The 
front  face  is  convex,  smooth,  and  having  a  deej)  notch  for 
the  passage  of  the  large  vein,  called  vena  cava.  The  back 
face  is  also  smooth  and  convex,  and  is  entered  by  the 
portal  vein,  hepatic  artery,  and  nerves  ;  and  more  biliary 
ducts  leave  the  liver. 

Viewing  the  liver  in  position,  it  is  found  that  the  front 
face  is  applied  against  the  diaphragm,  and  the  back  face  in 
contact  with  the  stomach,  duodenum,  and  colon. 

The  liver  secretes  bile  and  sugar.  It  secretes  bile  from 
the  blood  of  the  portal  vein,  which  comes  from  the  intes- 
tines charged  with  assimilable  substances.  It  is  supposed 
to  assist  in  purification  of  the  blood,  in  digestion  and  in 
the  generation  of  animal  heat,  as  the  elements  it  absorbs 
are  rich  in  carbon  and  hydrogen.  The  sugar  formed  in' the 
liver  finds  its  way  into  the  blood,  and  is  carried  off  by  the 
veins.  It  is  elaborated  in  hepatic  cells  by  the  transforma- 
tion of  starch,  or  a  similar  substance,  by  contact  with  a 
kind  of  animal  yeast  or  diastase  in  the  interior  of  these  cells. 
The  sugar  is  passed  oft'  in  the  veins  and  the  bile  is  carried 
away  in  the  biliary  ducts  to  the  gall  bladder  for  storage  till 
recpiired.  The  bile  is  composed  of  soda  in  combination 
with  glycocholic,  taurocholic  and  several  other  acids  with 
ammonia.  The  soda  comes  from  the  common  salt  of  the 
food.  The  action  of  bile  in  digestion  is  largely  upon 
the  fat,  Avhich  it  decomposes  and  turns  into  an  emulsion, 
separating  it  into  very  minute  globules,  similar  to  butter 
globules  in  milk. 

Another  office  it  is  supposed  to  perform,  is  to  change  the 
undissolved  starch  into  sugar  and  facilitate  its  absorption 
into  the  circulation.     It  is  also  thought  to  assist  in  pre- 


66  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

serving  the  albuminoids,  with  many  offices  not  fully  de- 
termined. 

The  liver  is  regarded  as  a  filter  to  separate  excrementi- 
tious  matters  from  the  blood,  as  well  as  supplying  an  im- 
portant agent  id  digestion. 

The  Pancreas. — This  organ  has  a  close  resemblance  to 
the  salivary  glands.  It  is  situated  in  front  of  the  kidneys, 
and  behind  the  liver.  Its  weight,  in  the  horse,  is  about  17 
ounces. 

The  pancreas  receives  its  blood  by  the  hepatic  and  great 
mesenteric  arteries,  ^ts  secretion,  or  juice,  has  ah  alkaline 
action,  and  contains  several  ferments;  a  diastase  capable  of 
turning  starch  into  sugar;  trypsin,  acting  on  the  albumi- 
noids, and  a  ferment  that  emulcifies  fats.  The  latter  office 
is  stated  by  Chauveau  to  be  its  principal  one.  It  seems 
certain  that  the  action  of  the  pancreatic  juice  is  very  im- 
portant on  several  classes  of  food  elements. 

The  Spleen. — This  organ  differs  from  the  ghmds  in  not 
having  an  excretory  duct.  It  has  been  called  a  vascular 
gland,  but  its  uses  are  not  fully  understood.  It  is  sickle- 
shaped,  and  is  suspended  near  the  great  curvature  of  the 
stomach.  The  tissue  of  the  spleen  has  a  violet  blue  color, 
sometimes  approaching  to  red,  is  elastic,  tenacious  and 
soft,  yields  to  the  pressue  of  the  finger  and  retains  the  im- 
print. It  is  the  seat  of  disease  called  splenic  fever,  caused 
by  its  engorgement  of  blood..  It  has  been  called  a  reser- 
voir of  blood  from  the  portal  vein.  The  substance  of  the 
spleen  is  easily  dilated,  and  its  elasticity  favors  this  view. 
The  red  globules  of  blood  are  supposed  to  be  destroyed  in 
the  spleen. 

It  does  not  appear  to  be  indispensably  necessary  to  life, 
as  animals  have  lived,  in  apparent  health,  after  its  removal 
from  the  body. 


CIRCULATION.  67 

CiRCULATiox. — It  i.^  not  necessary  to  our  purpose  to  go 
into  any  extended  explanation  of  this  important  animal 
function,  but  it  will  be  sufficient  to  mention  that  this  con- 
sists in  the  incessant  motion  of  the  blood,  propelled  by  tlie 
heart  through  the  arteries  to  all  the  inner  and  outer  sur- 
faces of  the  body,  permeating  every  tissue;  from  thence 
returning  by  the  veins  to  the  heart,  and  thence  lo  the  lungs, 
wliere  by  contact  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  it  is  purified 
and  rendered  fit  to  nourish  the  tissues,  and  returning  from 
the  lungs  to  the  heart,  it  is  sent  again  on  its  rounds  to  every 
part  of  the  body.  We  explained  in  a  previous  chapter  the 
appearance  and  chemical  composition  of  the  blood.  We 
have  pointed  out  how  the  blood  is  elaborated  from  the 
food  in  process  of  digestion,  and  then  absorbed  into  the 
circulation. 

Tlie  heart  is  composed  of  strong  muscular  fibre,  and  di- 
vided into  four  cavities,  having  valves  which  regulate  the 
flow  of  blood.  These  muscles  expand  and  contract  with 
regularity,  producing  what  ^ye  call  ^'heart-beats."  There 
are  something  like  four  of  these ''beats"  to  one  inspira- 
tion of  the  lungs. 

The  Pulse. — As  nature  is  regular,  these  beats  or  the 
pulse  becomes  an  indication  of  health  or  an  abnormal 
state  of  the  system,  and  it  is  therefore  an  accomplishment 
in  a  cattle-feeder  to  understand  the  j^ulse  of  different  ani- 
mals. This  will  give  him  a  better  knowledge  of  the  real 
condition  of  the  system  than  any  outward  appearance. 

Dr.  James  Law  (in  his  Veterinary  Adviser)  says:  The 
pulse  in  full-grown  animals  at  rest  may  be  set  down  per 
minute  as  :  Horse  36  to  46 ;  ox  38  to  42,  or  in  a  hot 
building,  with  full  paunch,  TO;  sheep,  goat,  and  pig,  70  to 
80.  In  old  age  it  may  be  5  less  in  large  quadrupeds,  and 
20  to  30  in  small  ones.  Youth  and  small  size  imply  a 
greater  rapidity.  The  new-born  foal  has  a  pulse  three 
times  as  frequent  as  the  horse,  the  six-months  colt  double. 


68  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

and  the  two-year-old  one  and  a  quarter.  It  i8  increased  by 
hot,  close  buildings,  exertion,  fear,  a  nervous  temperament, 
and  pregnancy.  In. large  quadrupeds  there  is  a  monthly 
increase  of  four  to  five  beats  per  minute  after  the  6th 
month.  Independently  of  such  condition,  a  rapid  pulse 
imi^lies  fever,  inflammation  or  debility. 

The  pulse  may  be  felt  wherever  a  considerable  artery 
passes  over  a  superficial  bone  ;  thus  on  the  cord  felt  running 
across  the  border  of  the  lower  jaw,  just  in  front  of  its 
curved  portion ;  beneath  the  bony  ridge  which  extends  up- 
ward from  the  eye;  in  horses,  inside  the  elbow;  in  cattle, 
over  the  middle  of  the  first  rib,  or  under  the  tail. 

The  force  of  the  pulse  varies  in  the  different  species  in 
health,  thus  it  is  full  and  moderately  tense  in  the  horse ; 
smaller  and  harder  in  the  ass  and  mule  ;  full,  soft  and  roll- 
ing in  the  ox ;  small  and  quick  in  sheep ;  firm  and  hard 
in  swine.  In  disease  it  may  become  more  frequent,  sloiv, 
quick  (with  sharp  impulse),  tardy  (with  slow,  rolling 
movement),  full,  stroiig,  weak,  small  (when  thread-like  but 
quite  distinct),  hard  (when  with  jarring  sensation),  soft 
(when  the  opposite),  oppressed  (when  the  artery  is  full  and 
tense,  but  the  impulse  jerking  and  difficult,  as  if  the  flow 
Avere  obstructed),  jerking  and  receding  (when  with  empty, 
flaccid  vessel,  it  seems  to  leap  forward  at  each  beat),  inter- 
mittent (when  a  beat  is  missed  at  regular  intervals),  un- 
equal (when  some  beats  are  strong  and  others  weak).  Be- 
sides these  a  peculiar  thrill  is  usually  felt  with  each  beat  in 
very  weak,  bloodless  conditions. 

The  jerking,  intermittent,  unequal  and  irregular  pulses 
are  especially  indicative  of  heart  disease.  The  jerking 
pulse  is  associated  with  disease  of  the  valves  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  great  aorta  which  carries  blood  from  the 
left  side  of  the  heart,  and  is  accompanied  by  a  hissing  or 
sighing  noise  with  the  second  heart  sound.  The  intermit- 
tent pulse  implies  functional  derangement  of  the  heart,  but 
not  necessarily  disease  of  structure. 


CIRCULATION.  69 

The  unequal  and  irreghlar  pulse  is  met  in  cases  of  fatty 
degeneration,  disease  of  the  valves  on  thu  left  side,  cardiac 
dilation,  etc. 

Palpitation. — The  application  of  the  hand  over  the  chest, 
behind  the  left  elbow,  will  detect  any  violent  and  tumultu- 
ous beating,  irregularity  in  the  force  of  successive  beats,  etc. 

It  is  certainly  very  important  that  the  skillful  feeder 
should,  by  frequent  practice,  acquaint  himself  with  the 
pulse  in  health  and  disease.  For  by  this  he  may  be  able  to 
ai)ply  the  *' ounce  of  prevention  •' which  is  "worth  more 
than  a  pound  of  cure." 

The  best  feeders  cultivate  assiduously  the  faculty  of  ob- 
servation. Close  observation  for  a  few  years,  will  cause 
him  to  detect  at  once  the  condition  of  the  animal  by  its 
attitude  and  general  appearance. 

Respiration. — To  maintain  life  in  animals,  requires 
not  only  nutritive  matters  to  be  absorbed  into  the  circula- 
tion from  the  digestive  canal,  but  the  oxygen  of  the  air 
must  enter  with  these  nutritive  elements  into  the  circula- 
tion. The  effect  of  the  oxygen  is  to  expel  carbonic  acid 
gas  and  to  give  a  bright  red  color  to  the  blood.  It  comes 
in  contact  with  all  the  minute  structures  of  the  general 
capillary  system,  exciting  an  activity  in  the  tissues,  and,  as 
is  supposed,  inducing  a  combustible  action  which  evolves 
the  heat  of  the  animal  body.  And  this  constitutes  the 
])rocess  of  respiration. 

The  apparatus  by  which  this  process  of  respiration  is 
carried  on  consists  of  the  na^al  ravities,  laryn^',  trachea, 
and  lungs. 

The  Nostrils  perform  the  important  function  of  ad- 
mitting the  air  to  the  nasal  cavities  on  its  way  to  the  lungs. 
Tlieir  easy  dilation  allows  the  admission  of  a  greater  cr  less 
volume  of  air  suited  to  the  requirements  of  respiration. 
And  in  solipeds  the  nostrils  constitute  the  only  entrance 


TO  FEEDIXG   ANIMALS. 

by  which  air  can  be  introduced  to  tlie  trachea,  by  reason  of 
the  large  development  of  the  soft  pahite,  which  prevents 
the  entrance  of  air  by  the  mouth.  Tliese  orifices  are,  for 
this  reason,  larger  than  in  other  domestic  animals  that 
make  use  of  the  mouth  as  well  as  nostrils  for  the  admis- 
sion of  air. 

The  nasal  cavities  contain  the  olfactory  membrane  and 
nerves,  which  give  the  sense  of  odors,  besides  other  less  im- 
portant membranes,  and  conduct  the  air  to  the  lari/nx, 
which  is  a  cartilaginous  framework,  forming  a  tube  in- 
tended for  the  passage  of  air  during  the  act  of  respiration. 
It  has  also  the  power  of  dilating  and  contracting  to  ac- 
commodate the  volume  of  air  introduced  into  or  expelled 
from  the  lungs,  and  wlien  partially  paralyzed  causes  what  is 
called  "roaring."  But  the  most  interesting  office  of  the 
larynx  is  as  an  air  organ  for  the  articulation  of  sounds. 

The  trachea  is  a  flexible  and  elastic  tube,  formed  of  a 
series  of  cartilaginous  rings,  which  connect  with  and  con- 
tinue the  larynx  and  terminate  above  the  base  of  the  heart 
in  two  divisions  called  the  bronchi. 

Each  of  the  two  hronchi,  or  terminal  branches  of  the 
trachea,  join  to  and  imbed  themselves  in  the  substance 
of  the  lungs.  Tlieir  substance  is  cartilaginous  like  the 
trachea. 

The  thorax^  or  pectoral  cavity,  holds  not  only  the  lungs, 
but  the  heart  and  the  large  vessels  that  spring  from  or 
pass  to  the  heart,  with  apart  of  the  a^sophagus,  trachea  and 
nerves.  The  thorax  rests  upon  and  is  surrounded  by  the 
ribs,  sternum  and  the  dorsal  vertebra",  and  is  above  the  dia- 
phi'agm.  It  performs  an  important  i)art  in  respiration, 
[t  is  dilated  and  contracted  by  tlie  movements  of  the  dia- 
l)hragm  and  ribs.  The  lung  is  applied  against  the  thor- 
acic walls,  and  follows  this  cavity  in  its  movements,  dilat- 
ing and  contracting  with  inspiration  or  expiration. 


RESPIRATION.  71 

The  Lungs. — This  necessary  organ  of  respiration  is  of 
a  spongy  texture,  lodged  in  the  thoracic  cavity,  divided  into 
two  independent  halves  or  lobes — a  right  and  a  left,  the 
left  being  a  little  smaller  than  the  right  lobe.  The  pul- 
monary tissue  of  the  mature  animal  is  of  a  bright  rose 
color  ;  in  the  foetus  its  color  is  deeper  because  not  yet  in- 
flated with  air.  The  tissue  is  soft  but  very  strong  and 
remarkably  elastic.  It  is  very  light,  floats  in  water  if 
healthy,  and  this  is  attributed  to  the  air  held  in  the  lung 
vesicles.  The  lung  of  a  fa?tus  will  sink  in  water,  but  after 
once  being  inflated,  the  air  cannot  be  expelled  so  as  to 
cause  it  to  sink.  The  relative  weight  of  the  lungs  to  body 
is  much  greater  in  the  adult  animal  than  in  the  foetus,  it 
being  one-thirtieth  in  the  former  to  one-sixtieth  of  the 
whole  body  in  the  latter. 

It  is  demonstrated  that  the  blood,  after  losing  its  bright 
red  color  and  the  properties  which  maintain  the  vitality  of 
tlie  tissues,  returns  from  all  parts  of  the  body  by  the  veins 
to  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  and  is  propelled  thence  into 
the  lung  where  it  is  regenerated  by  contact  with  the  air. 
These"  air  cells  or  vesicles  in  the  lungs  are  wonderfully  mi- 
nute, being  only  from  1-3800  to  1-1600  part  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  And  between  these  vesicles  is  an  exceedingly 
thin,  elastic  tissue,  with  a  few  muscular  fibres.  The  pul- 
monary veins  carries  the  blood  back  to  the  heart  after  re- 
generation in  the  lungs.  The  principal  thing  to  remember 
is,  that  the  lucg  is  the  seat  of  the  absorption  of  oxygen  by 
and  the  expulsion  of  carbonic  acid  from  the  returned  or 
vitiated  blood,  or  the  transformation  of  dark  into  bright 
red  colored  blood. 

The  lung  is  early  developed  in  the  fcjetus,  and  its  lobular 
texture  is  well  defined  through  the  whole  period  of  fcetal 
existence. 

Respiratory  Actioji  of  the  Skin. — The  skin  is  the  seat  of 
a  constant  and  important  respiratory  action,  as  it  absorbs 


72  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

oxygen  and  throws  off  carbonic  acid,  and  when  this  action 
is  interrupted  the  health  of  the  animal  suffers.  The  true 
skin  underlies  the  scarf  skin,  and  is  filled  by  capillary 
blood-vessels,  and  it  is  in  it?  passage  through  these  cai;il- 
laries  that  the  blood  gives  off  carbonic  acid  and  absorbs 
oxygen.  The  amounts  thus  given  oif  and  taken  up  are 
({lute  considerable.  The  excretions  from  the  skin  in  the 
form  of  ^Mnsensible  perspiration,"  also  carries  off  large 
amounts  of  water. 

This  also  is  the  means  of  relieving  the  body  of  surplus 
heat.  Millions  of  pores  permeate  the  skin,  and  large  vol- 
umes of  vapor  are  given  off  through  these  pores.  These 
orifices  are  exceedingly  minute,  convoluted  tubes,  lying 
under  the  skin,  and  are  found  to  be  from  one-fifteenth  to 
one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  length.  Erasmus  Wilson  estimated 
the  number  of  these  tubes  in  every  square  inch  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  body  to  be  2,800,  and  the  total  number  of  square 
inches  on  the  surface  of  the  body  of  an  average  sized  man 
to  be  2,500,  therefore  his  skin  is  drained  with  28  miles  of 
these  tubes,  having  seven  millions  of  openings.  Water, 
when  converted  into  vapor  by  the  heat  of  the  body,  ex- 
pands to  1,700  times  its  liquid  bulk,  and  in  doing  this  ab- 
sorbs a  large  amount  of  heat,  and  the  watery  vapor  escapes 
through  the  pores  of  the  skin,  thus  cooling  the  body. 

This  shows  the  immense  imiiortanco  of  regulating  tlie 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere  surrounding  the  bodies  of 
animals,  as  all  the  heat  of  the  body,  as  well  as  its  growtli, 
comes  from  the  food. 

Animal  Heat. — It  was  formerly  supposed  by  physiolo- 
gists that  animal  heat  was  produced  by  the  oxidation  or 
combustion  of  the  carbon  of  the  food  in  the  lungs,  by 
means  of  the  oxygen  inhaled.  But  later  investigations 
explain  these  phenomena  in  a  different  manner.  Dr. 
Armsby,  in  his  late  work,  explains  this  later  theory  con- 
cisely, thus : 


tTRINARY    ORQAKS.  tS 

"The  distribution  of  oxygen  through  the  body  is  ac- 
complished by  means  of  the  circulation.  Each  little  cor- 
puscle carries  its  load  of  oxygen  from  the  lungs  througli 
the  heart  and  arteries  into  the  capillaries.  There  the  sub- 
stances formed  in  the  minute  cells  of  the  tissue  by  the  de- 
composition of  their  contents  under  tlie  iniluence  of  the 
vital  force,  diffuse  into  the  blood,  and  here  they  meet  the 
oxygen  contained  in  the  corpuscles,  and,  uniting  with  it, 
are  burned,  producing  animal  heat.  Innumerable  inter- 
mediate i^roducts  are  formed  ih  this  process,  but  the  final 
result  is  in  all  cases  the  same.  All  the  non-nitrogenous 
substances  yield  carbonic  acid  and  water;  the  nitrogenous 
ones  the  same  substances,  and  in  addition  nrea,  the  char- 
acteristic ingredient  in  urine.  Urea  is  a  crystallizable  body 
of  comparatively  simple  composition,  which  together  with 
small  amounts  of  other  substances,  contains  all  the  nitro- 
gen and  part  of  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of  the  albumi- 
iu)ids,  from  which  it  is  derived.  In  the  urine  of  herbiv- 
orous animals  it  is,  in  part,  replaced  by  liiyimric  acid.  All 
these  oxydations  take  place  in  the  cells  and  capillaries  of 
the  body,  and  it  is  there,  consequently,  and  not  in  the 
lungs,  that  animal  heat  is  produced." 

This  latter  theory,  which  seems  the  more  philosophical, 
does  not  change  any  of  the  practical  conclusions  hereto- 
fore drawn  in  reference  to  the  expenditure  of  food  in  the 
])roduction  of  animal  heat.  It  therefore  does  not  intro- 
duce any  i)ractical  new  philosophy  into  the  problem  of 
feeding  and  growing  animals. 

Urixauy  Organs. — These  organs — very  important  in 
the  animal  economy — are  charged  with  eliminating  from 
the  blood  with  the  surplus  water,  the  excrementitious  nitro- 
genous products  resulting  from  the  exercise  of  the  vital 
functions. 

The  kidneys,  the  essential  organs  of  urinary  secretion, 
are  two  glandular  organs,  situated  in  the  abdominal  oavitv. 


74  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

one  Oil  each  side  of  the  spinal  column.  The  right  kidney 
comes  forward  beneath  the  two  last  ribs,  whilst  the  left 
only  reaches  the  18th  rib.  The  right  kidney  is  slightly  the 
largest.  The  urinary  secretion  is  sup[)0sed  to  be  simply  a 
nitration  of  these  elements  contained  in  the  blood  through 
the  tissue  of  the  kidneys. 

The  ureters  are  membranous  canals,  having  about  the 
diameter  of  a  pipe-stem,  which  convey  the  urine  from  the 
kidneys  to  the  bladder. 

The  bladder  is  a  membranous,  ovoid  reservoir,  located  in 
the  pelvic  cavity,  and  occupying  a  space  according  to  the 
quantity  of  nrine  it  contains.  The  bladder  serves  a  most 
viseful  purpose  in  retaining  the  urine  to  be  voided  at  con- 
venient periods. 

The  urethra  is  common  to  the  urinary  and  generative 
organs. 

Excretions. 

The  decompositions  and  oxidations  constantly  going  on 
in  the  body  charge  the  blood  with  carbonic  acid,  urea  and 
some  other  nitrogenous  products.  These  must  be  ex- 
creted from  the  body  or  injury — even  poisoning — would 
soon  result. 

We  have  seen  how  the  blood  is  relieved  of  this  excre- 
mentitious  matter  by  filtering  through  the  tissue  of  the 
kidneys  and  thence  passing  to  the  bladder.  There  has 
been  various  theories  as  to  the  excretion  of  nitrogen — 
whether  the  decomposed  albuminoid  matter  in  the  body  is 
all  excreted  with  the  urine  and  faeces,  or  whether  some 
material  portion  of  it  is  excreted  from  the  lungs  and  skin. 
Boussingault,  Regnault  and  Reiset  all  held  the  opinion  that 
nitrogen,  in  a  gaseous  form,  is  excreted  from  the  lungs  and 
skin.  This  opinion  was  (juite  general  until  the  experi- 
ments of  Karl  Voit  appeared  to  furnish  reasonable  proof 
that  urine  and  the  solid  dung  contained  all  the  nitroge- 


EXCRETIONS. 


75 


nous  matters  excreted  from  the  body.  And  later  experi- 
ments also  confirm  Voit's  conclusions.  The  present  state 
of  the  evidence  seems  to  establish  the  fact  that  all  the  ni- 
trogen of  the  food,  except  what  is  appropriated  to  an  in- 
crease of  body,  or  the  production  of  milk,  is  recovered  in 
the  visible  excrements.  This  has  been  proved  by  experi- 
ments upon  various  animals,  and  is  a  matter  of  the 
highest  importance  in  understanding  a  rational  system  of 
feeding. 

Experiments  have  included  oxen,  milch  cows,  sheep,  etc. 
We  copy  the  following  table  from  Dr.  Armsby's  Manual  of 
Cattle-feeding.  This  includes  oxen  and  milch  cows  at 
three  different  stations.  The  determination  of  the  nitro- 
gen in  the  excrement  also  includes  that  in  the  milk  when 
the  experiment  relates  to  milch  cows.  The  weight  is  given 
in  grammes  (tjV  of  an  ounce). 


Nitrogen  in 

Difference. 

Place. 

Length  of  Feed- 

ing. 

Food. 
Grammes. 

Excrements. 
Grammes. 

Grammes. 

Per  cent. 

Munich 

6  diiys 

241.5 

238.53 

—2.97 

1.2 

Mockerii 

20  to  25  days 

120.5 

122.0 

4-1.5 

1.2 

Mockein 

20  to  25  days 

121.0 

117.5 

—3.5 

2.9 

Mockern 

20  to  25  days 

117.4 

113.1 

—4.3 

3.6 

Moekern 

20  to  25  days 

114.5 

120.0 

+  5.5 

4.8 

Mockern 

20  to  25  days 

114.8 

108.4 

—6.4 

5.6 

Mockern'..   ... 

20  to  25  days 

121.4 

113.2 

—8.2 

6.7 

Ilohenheim. .. 

Nearly  (i  weeks 

165  2 

164.5 

—0.7 

0.4 

Hohenheim. .. 

Nearly  6  weeks 

109 . 1 

169.8 

+  0.7 

0.4 

Sheep  were  experimented  with  to  determine  this  point  at 
Weende  Experiment  Station,  and,  when  allowance  was 
made  for  the  growth  of  the  wool,  the  excrements  fully  ac- 
counted foi-  all  the  nitrogen  in  the  food. 

Stohmann,  at  Ilalle  Experiment  Station,  proved  that  the 
nitrogen  of  the  food  was  all  found  in  the  visible  excre- 
ments of  the  goat;  and  it  may  thus  be  considered  as  es- 
tablished that  all  the  nitroojen  of  the  food  of  our  domestic 


76  PKEDING    AXIMALS. 

iiniinals  is  recovered  in  tlie  excrements,  together  with  the 
increase  in  the  weight  of  the  body. 

Respiratory  Products. — With  a  view  of  further  de- 
termining the  correctness  of  the  conclusions  above  stated, 
Grouven  experimented  upon  the  direct  products  of  respi- 
ration to  determine  wliether  any  ammonia  may  pass  off 
through  the  lungs  or  skin,  and  found  a  mere  infinitessimal 
(|iantity  of  this  gas  thus  excreted;  thus  confirming  the 
previous  conclusion. 

And  experimenters  propose  to  determine  the  gain  or  /o.sx 
o'  flesh  in  an  animal  by  comparing  the  whole  amount  of 
nitrogen  in  the  food  with  the  whole  amount  of  nitrogen 
in  the  excrements.  If  the  nitrogen  in  the  excrements  is 
less  than  in  the  food,  then  the  animal  is  gaining  in  flesh, 
l)ut  if  more  in  the  excrements,  then  the  animal  is  losing 
flesh. 

Carbon  is  excreted  from  the  body  partly  in  the  urinary 
excretions,  but  more  through  the  lungs  and  skin. 

Hydrogen  is  excreted  \i?ivt\Y  in  the  urea  but  mostly  in  the 
form  of  water. 

Excretion  of  Ash  Constituents. — The  ash  or  min- 
eral matter  of  the  food  is  excreted  in  the  nrine  and  in  the 
solid  dung.  Liebig  held  that  phosphoric  acid  was  generally 
not  found  in  the  urine  of  herbivorous  animals  because  this 
liquid  is  nearly  always  alkaline,  and  fodder  generally  con- 
tains much  lime  which  unites  with  the  phosphoric  acid, 
forming  phosphate  of  lime.  Phosphate  of  lime  being  in- 
soluble in  alkaline  fluids,  and  thus  phosphoric  acid  is  not 
likely  to  be  found  in  the  urine  except  Avhen  there  is  more 
than  can  unite  with  the  lime.  Bertram  found  that  when 
magnesia  takes  the  place  of  the  lime,  phosphoric  acid  ap- 
l)ears  in  the  urine,  even  when  that  is  alkaline.  When  the 
food  is  rich  in  phosphoric  acid  and  comparatively  poor  in 


VALUE     Ol-     3IANUKE.  77 

lime,  tlie  ash  of  the  urine  will  be  found  20  to  40  per  cent, 
uf  phosphoric  acid  ;  for  instance,  when  the  food  is  milk 
or  when  animals  are  fed  upon  rich  grains.  But  when  ru- 
minants are  fed  exclusively  upon  coarse  fodder  containing- 
much  lime,  very  little  phosphoric  acid  is  found  in  the 
urine. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  excretion  of  phosphoric 
jicid  in  the  urine  will  depend  upon  the  kind  of  food  given. 
When  not  found  in  the  urine  it  is  excreted  in  the  solid 
duno-;  but  this  usually  occurs  when  food  is  given  that  is 
poor  in  this  element  and  comparatively  rich  in  lime — and 
therefore  in  all  rich  feeding  the  phosphoric  acid  is  princi- 
pally excreted  in  the  urine. 

Of  potash  and  aoda  contained  in  the  food  some  05  per 
cent,  is  excreted  in  the  urine,  likewise  20  to  30  per  cent,  of 
the  magnesia,  and  nearly  all  of  the  sulphuric  acid  and 
chlorine,  but  only  a  very  little  lime. 

All  the  rest  of  the  ash  constituents  that  are  not  used  in 
the  body  or  in  the  production  of  milk,  together  with  the 
silica,  are  excreted  in  the  dung. 

We  have  endeavored  in  the  above  to  give  a  short  and 
clear  explanation  of  animal  excretions.  Careful  attention 
to  these  physiological  facts  will  enable  the  stock  feeder 
to  understand  the  manurial  value  of  the  different  foods, 
and  also  the  comparative  value  of  the  liquid  and  solid 
excretions. 

Value  of  Manure. 

The  economic  feeding  of  farm  stock  requires  a  careful 
consideration  of  the  value  of  their  manure.  In  the  chief 
countries  of  Europe  where  agriculture  is  most  intelligently 
conducted,  the  value  of  the  manure  is  one  of  the  chief  factors 
entering  into  the  problem  of  cattle,  shecji  and  swine  hus- 
bandry. Whilst  in  this  country,  with  our  so  lately  virgin 
soil,  the  value  of  the  nuinure  has  only  recently  been  seri- 


78  FEEDING    AXIMALS. 

ously  considered.  But  the  clearest  foresight,  even  in  the 
newly-settled  West,  is  now  studying  this  question  of  com- 
pensation for  fertility  removed  by  constant  cropping;  and 
there,  the  principal  location  of  our  present  meat  produc- 
tion, and  soon  to  be  also  of  our  dairy  productions,  this 
problem  must  be  considered  on  tlie  same  basis  as  it  is  in 
tlie  meat-producing  regions  of  Europe. 

We  have  just  seen  that  the  nitrogen  and  mineral  matter 
of  the  food  are  all  recovered  in  the  visible  excrement,  ex- 
cept what  is  stored  up  in  the  body  of  the  animal  as  an  in- 
crease of  its  weight.  In  general  terms — the  disposition  of 
the  food  consumed  by  an  animal  is  as  follows  :  The  indi- 
gestible part  passes  nearly  unchanged  through  the  body — a 
part  is  assimilated  into  the  body  to  replace  the  natural 
waste  of  the  system,  but  is  itself  afterward  disorganized 
and  ejected  ;  the  rest  is  converted  into  the  body  of  the 
animal  as  an  increase  of  its  substance — that  is,  the  undi- 
gested food  and  the  aliment  which  has  undergone  conver- 
sion into  flesh  and  other  tissues,  and  subsequent  disorgan- 
ization, constitute  the  excrements  or  manure.  The  richer 
in  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  the  food  is,  the 
more  valuable  must  be  the  manure.  And  it  thus  follows, 
that  the  actual  money  value  of  a  food  is  not  to  be  found 
merely  in  the  amount  of  flesh  which  it  makes,  but  also  in 
the  value  of  the  manure  produced  from  it. 

As  the  richest  food  produces  the  richest  manure,  and  as 
all  the  fertilizing  elements  of  the  food  which  are  not  re- 
quired for  rejilacing  waste  or  producing  growth  in  the 
animal  are  fou.id  in  the  manure,  so  that  many  English 
feeders  seem  C|Uite  indifferent  as  to  the  proper  adjustment 
of  the  ration  to  the  actual  needs  of  the  animal — satisfied 
that  whatever  is  not  returned  in  growth  and  laying  on  of 
fat  is  found  in  the  manure  heap — they  often  feed  to  steers 
8  to  12  pounds  of  oil  cakes  wlien  the  animal  cannot  utilize 
mere  than  G  pounds  of  this  highly  nitrogenous  food.     Al- 


VALUE     OF     MANURE.  79 

though  the  manure  is  richer  for  this  excess  of  nitrogenous 
food  wliich  passes  in  an  undigested  state,  yet  the  economy 
of  the  practice  is  quite  similar  to  that  of  feeding  judi- 
ciously 100  pounds  of  oil  cake,  and  at  the  same  time 
spreading  100  pounds  more  over  the  manure  pile  for  its 
enrichment.  An  economical  consideration  of  meat  and 
manure  production  would  seem  to  require  that  the  feeding 
ration  should  be,  at  least,  approximately  adjusted  to  the 
needs  and  capacity  of  the  animal,  and  that  the  manure 
should  be  the  excrementitious  matters  resulting  from  the 
most  economical  feeding. 

Science  should  teach  the  proportion  of  the  various  ingre- 
dients of  food  required  for  the  most  economical  produc- 
tion of  milk,  meat  and  wool,  and  it  is  the  value  of  the 
manure  produced  by  such  feeding  that  we  are  considering. 

The  most  valuable  result  in  manure,  under  a  rational 
system  of  feeding,  will  be  produced  at  the  point  of  the 
greatest  proportional  production  from  a  given  amount  of 
food.  A  scanty  ration  which  will  be  almost  wholly  used 
as  the  food  of  support,  will  seldom  enter  into  a  system  of 
profitable  feeding. 

There  have  been  different  estimates  of  the  value  of  the 
manure  resulting  from  the  consumption  of  a  given  quan- 
tity of  food  by  farm  animals.  That  most  industrious  ex- 
perimenter. Sir  J.  B.  Lawes,  some  years  ago,  laid  down  the 
figures  of  value  in  the  following  table  : 

Showing  the  estimated  value  of  the  manure  obtained  on 
the  consumption  of  one  gross  ton  (2,240  lbs.)  of  different 
articles  of  food ;  each  supposed  to  be  of  good  quality  of 
its  kind. 


80                                           FKEDING    ANIMALS. 

Desckiption  of  Food. 

Estimated  Mon- 
ey Value  of  tlie 
Manure  from 
one  pross  ton 
of  each  Food. 

Value  of  uet 

ton.  2,000 

lbs.,  in  our 

Currency. 

1.  Decorticated  cotton-seed  cake 

2.  Kape  cake 

3.  Lill^ecd  cake      

4.  Maltdust  (sprouts) 

£ 
6 
4 

\ 

3 
3 
3 
3 

3 

1 
1 
1 

1 
1 
1 

1 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

i; 

0 

s. 
10 
18 
12 
5 
17 
13 
13 
13 
o 
2 
14 
13 
11 
11 
•1 
5 
10 
13 
12 
10 

5 

4 
4 

1 

d. 

0 
0 

I 

0 
0 
6 
») 
«i 
6 
H 
0 
ti 
fi 
(i 
0 
0 
H 
« 

0 
0 
3 
0 
0 

%    c. 
27.67 
21.52 
19.54 
18  22 

.•s.  Lentils 

(i.  Linseed 

7.  Vetches 

lfi.44 
15.65 
15.76 

h.  Beans 

!».  Peas 

15.76 
13.:J5 

10.  Locust  beans 

4  8^? 

11.  Oats                 ..                                   ... 

7  40 

]  2.  Wheat 

7  08 

13.  Indian  corn 

6  76 

14.  Malt. 

15.  Barley       

6.71 
6  27 

16.  Clover  hay 

17.  ^leadow  hay 

9.65 
6.4^^ 

18.  Oat  straw 

2.90 

19.  Wheat  straw 

2.68 

20.  Barlev  straw 

2  26 

21.  Potatoes  

1.51 

22.  Mangolds 

1.08 

23.  Swedish  turnips 

24.  Common  turnips 

25.  Carrots 

.91 

.86 

.86 

Even  English  farmers,  who  have  lieretoforc  vahied  ma- 
nure much  higher  than  American  farmers,  have  often 
mentioned  Dr.  Lawes'  table  as  placing  too  higli  an  estimate 
upon  the  manurial  value  of  food,  because,  as  they  said,  the 
same  elements  could  be  more  cheaply  purchased  in  com- 
mercial fertilizers.  But  it  may  be  doubted  if  this  is  true 
of  the  present  market  value  of  the  three  elements,  nitrogen, 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid.  We  therefore  give  another 
table  showing  the  amount  of  each  of  these  elements  in 
1,000  pounds  of  the  different  foods,  and  then  calculating 
the  value  of  one  ton  at  the  prices  mentioned  at  the  head  of 
the  columns.  These  prices  are  18  cents  for  nitrogen,  G 
cents  for  potash  and  10  cents  for  phosphoric  acid.  These 
are  considerably  lower  than  the  prices  estimated  in  com- 
mercial fertilizers.  We  give  this  here  as  a  convenient  table 
for  reference  : 


Value  op  makuri^. 


81 


MANUFACTURED    PRODUCTS  AND  REFUSE. 


Substances. 


( 'otton-seed  cake  (decorticated)  . . . 
Cotton-seed  cake  (undecorticated). 

Kiipecake 

Liii-eed  cake 

I'liliimut  cake . 

I.inseed  meal  (extracted) 

I'oppy-seed  cake 

1  lemp-seed  cake 

'^^  alnut  cake . 

Siinrtower-seed  cake 

Malt  sprouts 

Wheat  bran 

liye  bran 

liye  flour 

Millet  meal 

Sui,'ar-beet  cake 

Buckwheat  bran 


lbs. 

900 
88.') 
900 
880 
9.% 
903 
885 
901 
863 
897 
90.O 
8H.5 
875 
858 
SCO 
.308 
860 


IS  cts. 

lbs. 

62.0 
39.0 
48.0 
45.0 
25.0 
59  8 
47.8 
44.7 
.52.2 
.55.9 
38.0 
22.0 
2:^.2 
16.8 
18.3 
18.0 


6cts. 

lbs. 

21.0 

20.1 

13.2 

14.7 

5.5 

17.0 

22.0 

27.6 

17  7 

26.8 

19.5 

14.8 

19.3 

6.5 

2.3 

3.6 

10.0 


o 

O  es 

.C 


10  c^. 

lbs. 

29.5 
22.9 
24.6 
19  6 
12.2 
25.6 


40.0  1 

37.6  ' 

2S  4 

35.4 

17.2 

32.3 

34.2 

8.5 

5.5 

1.0 

17  0 

$;».74 

21.0:3 

2:3.78 

21.88 

12.10 

28.68 

27.84 

26.92 

25.59 

30.42 

19.46 

16.15 

16.43 

8.52 

H.Si 

3.45 

8.52 


GRAIX.S    AND    SEEDS. 


Beans  

Peas    

Hye 

( )ats  

W  heat 

Barley 

Maize 

Millet,  with  husk  ... 
.Millet,  without  husk 

Buckwheat 

Sorghum 

flaxseed 

Vetches 

Hemp  seed  

Rape  seed 

Poppy  seed 


8.55 

41.0 

12.0 

11.6 

857 

36.0 

9.8 

8.8 

851 

17.6 

5.4 

8.2 

870 

20.6 

4.5 

6.2 

a56 

18.8 

5.4 

8.0 

860 

17.0 

4.9 

7.3 

sm 

16.6 

3.6 

6.1 

870 

23.2 

4.7 

9.1 

869 

20.0 

2.3 

6.6 

860 

14.4 

2.1 

4.4 

860 

16.0 

4.2 

8.1 

905 

:i6.0 

12.3 

15.4 

864 

44.0 

6  3 

7.9 

878 

2Q.0 

9.7 

17.5 

890 

:«.0 

8.8 

16.4 

8.53 

28.0 

r.. 

16.4 

18.52 
15.87 
8.62 
10.27 
9.01 
8  16 
7.72 
10.73 
8.79 
6  29 
7.88 
17.51 
18.17 
14.02 
15.49 
14.21 


Meadow  hay . 

Timothy 

Dt'ail  ripe  hay 

Bed  clover,  in  blossom 

Bed  clover,  ripe 

White  clover . 

Lucern  or  alfalfa 

(ireen  vetches 

Green  oats 

Green  peas 


857 

15.5 

16  8 

3.8 

856 

15.5 

17.2 

6.8 

856 

12.0 

5.0 

2.9 

840 

19.7 

19  5 

5.6 

840 

15.0 

12.2 

3  5 

840 

23.8 

10.6 

8.5 

840 

2:3.0 

15.2 

5.1 

840 

22  7 

30.9 

9.4 

855 

14.7 

24.1 

5.1 

a33 

22.8 

29.6 

9.7 

8.:35 
9  00 
5.56 
10  .t5 
7.56 
11. 53 
11.00 
13.75 
9.20 
13.69 


8S 


:^EEt)ING   ANIMAtS 

GREEN   FODDER. 


Substances. 


>readow  grass,  in  blossom. 

Young  grafts 

Timothy 

Oats,  coming  into  head 

Oats,  in  blossom 


lbs. 

300 
200 

;^oo 

180 
2;w 

Rye,  in  blossom '     ,300 

Hungarian  millet i    320 

Red  clover i     200 

White  clover  i     HX) 

Swedish  clover !     185 

Lucern— alfalfa |    247 

Oreen  vetches i     180 

Green  peas .  j     185 

Green  rape  150 


18  cts.      6  cts 


lbs. 

4.8 
5.6 
5.4 
3.6 
3.0 
5.3 
5.3 
5.2 
5  0 
5.2 
7.0 
4.9 
5.1 
4.6 


lbs. 

6.0 
11.6 
6.1 


6.3 
8  6 
4.6 
2.4 
3.5 
4.5 
6.6 
5.6 
4.4 


10  cts. 

lbs. 

1.5 
2.2 
2.3 
1.7 
1.4 
y  4 
1.3 
1.3 
2.0 
1.0 
1.5 
2.0 
1.8 
1.2 


$2.24 
2.01 
1.94 
1.94 
1.61 
2.51 
2.54 
2.27 
2.15 
2.18 
2.94 
2.35 
2  34 
2^03 


STRAWS  AND  ROOTS. 


Boan  straw          . .•.. 

810 
857 
850 
830 
2,50 
115 
107 
142 
83 
850 

10.0 

4.8 

11 

3.4 
l.'.t 
2.4 
1.6 
1.8 
80 

25.9 
5.8 
9.7 

10.4 
5.6 
3  9 
2.0 
3.2 
2.9 

33.2 

4.1 
2.6 
2.0 
2.5 
1.8 
0.7 
0.6 
1.0 
0.6 
7.6 

7.. 52 

2.94 

Barley  straw 

Oat  straw    

3.36 
3  .54 

Potatoes 

Mangolds                       

2.. 55 
1.29 

Swedes 

Garrots  ..       .     ... .   . 

1.22 
1.16 

Turnips 

1.11 

Corn  Stalks 

4.19 

The  foregoing  table  of  different  fodders  and  tlieir  value 
as  manure,  after  passing  through  the  stomachs  of  aiiinuils, 
will  ])resent,  at  a  glance,  the  importance  of  carefully  Inis- 
handing  the  manure  made  upon  the  farm.  It  shows  that 
when  the  three  important  elements  in  farm  manure  are 
estimated  at  even  lower  prices  than  is  given  for  commercial 
f(;rtilizers,  the  value  of  the  manure  from  one  ton  of  any 
given  food  is  greater  than  the  estimate  made  by  Dr.  Lawes, 
and  which  has  been  considered  by  English  farmers  as  too 
high.  This  estimate  will  only  hold  good  when  the  manure, 
liquid  and  solid,  is  completely  saved.     And  we  do  not  give 


V.^LrE    OF   MAXURE.  S3 

this  table  as  fixing  the  absolute  value  of  the  manure  from 
these  feeding  stuffs,  as  the  quality  of  foods  differs  under 
varying  circumstances;  but  we  do  believe  that  these  values 
are  quite  as  reliable  as  those  given  for  commercial  fertilizers. 
We  shall  have  frequent  occasion  to  refer  to  this  table. 


84  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


CHxiPTER    IV. 

STOCK    BARNS. 

One  of  the  most  important  questions  relating  to  a  sys- 
tem of  economical  meat,  milk  and  wool  production  is  that 
of  the  best  construction  of  barns  for  the  various  kinds  of 
farm  animals.  Even  in  the  comparatively  mild  climate  of 
England,  the  best  feeders  have  found  it  a  great  economy 
to  provide  a  warm  shelter  in  winter  Many  experiments 
have  been  there  tried  upon  cattle  and  sheep.  But  sheep 
are  usually  supposed  to  be  the  best  provided  by  Nature 
with  protection  against  cold  ;  yet  Mr.  Nesbit  relates  a  case, 
coming  under  his  observation,  where  a  farmer  in  Dorset- 
shire placed  30  sheep  under  a  warm  shed,  and  a  like  num- 
ber of  sheep,  of  the  same  weight  and  condition,  were  fed 
m  the  open  field,  without  shelter  of  any  kind.  Each  lot 
was  fed  with  turnips,  ad  lihituni,  and  coarse  fodder.  This 
continued  through  the  cold  season,  and  the  result  proved 
that  those  without  shelter  gained  one  pound  per  head  each 
week,  whilst  those  under  shelter,  although  they  ate  less 
food,  increased  three  pounds  per  head  per  week. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  the  large  amount  of  water 
in  turnips  would  cause  this  diet  to  show  most  unfavorably 
m  the  open  air,  giving  a  greater  contrast  than  a  diet  of 
dry  food.  But  that  most  experienced  cattle  and  sheep 
feeder,  Mechi,  has  given  very  strong  testimony  in  favor  of 
shelter  for  all  farm  animals.  In  the  case  of  the  cow,  all 
dairymen  have  noted  the  immediate  effect  of  cold  upon  the 
secretion  of  milk.    A  sudden  change  to  a  lower  tempera- 


STOCK   BARNS.  85 

ture,  or  a  rain-storm,  will  often  reduce  the  yield  of  milk 
25  to  40  per  cent,  in  a  few  days.  If  we  had  as  complete  a 
test  in  the  case  of  fattening  cattle,  we  should  probably  find 
the  difference  in  gain  quite  as  great.  Mr.  Charles  Eaton, 
who  managed  a  large  number  of  cattle  on  the  great  Alex- 
ander farm,  in  Champaign  County,  111.,  one  cold  winter, 
found  that  all  the  corn  which  steers  could  eat  (about  40 
lbs.  per  day)  in  the  open  air,  only  sufficed  to  keep  them 
from  losing  weight. 

While  in  some  of  the  feeding  districts  in  the  West,  land 
and  corn  are  sometimes  so  cheap  that  many  good  farmers 
think  they  can  better  afford  the  corn  than  the  shelter  ;  but 
this  period  will  soon  end.  As  land  becomes  more  valuable 
they  will  find  it  quite  too  unremunerative  to  expend  a  large 
amount  of  corn  in  keeping  cattle,  with  very  little  gain  in 
weight,  during  the  winter  season.  It  is  not  wholly  the 
loss  of  food  that  should  be  considered,  but  the  postpone- 
ment of  ripe  market  condition,  and  the  fact  that  when  cat- 
tle are  at  a  stand-still  they  are  taking  on  an  unthrifty 
habit,  which  prevents  them,  for  a  time,  from  rapid  gain  on 
the  best  grass  in  spring.  And  there  can  be  no  doubt  that, 
when  the  exact  saving  by  warm  shelter  shall  be  determined 
by  an  accurate  comparison  between  out-door  and  in-door 
winter-feeding,  it  will  show  a  large  economy  in  favor  of 
building  the  best  cattle-barns  and  feeding  in  a  uniform 
temperature. 

The  few  comparative  tests  that  have  been  made  in  the 
West  between  open  air  and  barn-feeding,  which  have 
seemed  to  show  very  little  gain  from  the  warm  temperature 
of  the  barn,  have  ignored  the  effect  of  restraint  upon  wild 
animals.  The  animals  used  for  these  tests  had  never  been 
handled  or  subjected  to  restraint  until  placed  in  stable. 
This  confinement  and  sudden  change  of  habit  produced 
such  nervous  irritation  as  to  nearly  balance  the  beneficial 
effect  of  a  warmer  temperature.     A  convincing  test  must 


86  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

take  animals  handled  from  calfhood  and  used  to  the  re- 
straint of  a  stable  in  winter.  Such  animals,  compared  with 
animals  reared  and  constantly  fed  in  the  open  air,  will  show 
a  difference  in  amount  of  food  and  gain  that  all  intelli- 
gent feeders  will  be  inclined  to  heed. 

Barns  may  be  built  on  a  large  scale,  and  fully  equipped 
for  the  best  system  of  feeding,  at  ten  to  twenty  dollars  per 
head  of  cattle  they  will  accommodate.  Now,  let  us  sup- 
pose that  a  steer,  weighing  1,000  lbs.  on  the  first  day  of 
November,  will  gain  150  to  200  lbs.  more,  on  the  same 
food,  in  a  warm  stable,  than  in  the  open  air,  during  the 
five  cold  months  of  winter,  and  this  200  lbs.  gain  will  ren- 
der the  whole  carcass  worth  from  K  to  1  cent  more  per 
l^ound,  and  the  whole  gain  could  not  be  less  than  112  to 
^15  per  head,  which  would,  in  many  cases,  pay  the  whole 
cost  of  the  barn.  A  strict  comparison  between  summer 
and  winter  feeding,  in  the  open  air,  will  show  a  greater 
difference  than  this,  and  when  we  j^erfect  the  system  of 
barn  feeding,  we  shall  be  able  to  make  as  great  progress  in 
winter  as  in  summer  feeding.  We  know  there  are  other 
considerations  besides  the  cost  of  barns  to  be  taken  into 
account,  and  the  chief  of  these  is  the  labor  required  to  feed 
animals  in  barn  over  those  in  the  field,  but  we  shall  con- 
sider all  these  and  be  able  to  show  that  there  is  a  large 
balance  in  favor  of  the  best  system  of  barn  feeding. 

Form  of  Barn. 

Economy  and  convenience  of  space — that  form  and  ar- 
rangement requiring  the  least  amount  of  labor  to  feed  and 
care  for  a  given  number  of  animals — durability  as  well  as 
economy  in  the  cost  of  the  structure,  are  the  most  impor- 
tant requisites  in  barn  building.  The  early  forms  of 
American  barns  were  devised  when  everything  was  done 
by  hand,  and  they  were  built  low  to  accommodate  hand- 
pitching  ;  were  filled  with  interior  beams  and  posts,  which 


FORM   OF   BARN".  87 

much  obstructed  the  pitching  in  and  out  of  hay  and  grain, 
and,  being  so  low,  were  expensive  in  so  much  roof  and 
foundation  for  so  small  an  amount  of  cubic  feet  of  space. 
A  large  barn  was  built  in  the  form  of  a  long  paralellogram, 
with  IG-feet  outside  posts,  so  that,  when  a  stable  was  made 
in  the  first  story,  it  left  only  a  low  scaffold  over  it  for  the 
storage  of  fodder ;  and,  when  the  stable  was  in  the  base- 
ment, the  16-feet  posts  furnished  a  small  amount  of  room 
for  the  storage  of  hay,  considering  the  size  of  the  barn. 
A  drive-way  through  such  a  long  barn  leaves  but  narrow- 
space  on  each  side,  and  it  takes  up  too  large  a  j^i'oportion 
of  the  room.  Later  thought  has  substituted  24-feet  posts 
instead  of  lf>  feet,  and  this  nearly  doubles  the  capacity  for 
storage,  with  slight  addition  to  the  cost  of  the  barn.  A 
mow  24  feet  high  will  settle  so  much  solider  than  a  16-feet 
mow,  that  its  capacity  is  fully  80  per  cent,  greater,  whilst 
tlie  cost  of  the  barn  is  only  the  cost  of  8  feet  longer 
l)()sts  and  boards — a  mere  trifle.  And  as  the  present  system 
of  handling  hay  and  grain  with  the  horse-fork  enables  the 
farmer  to  fill  a  mow  of  any  height  with  equal  facility,  all 
barns  should  be  built  with  24  or  more  feet  posts.  The 
writer  finds  2S-feet  posts  none  too  high  for  convenience, 
and  furnishing  so  much  extra  room  for  a  great  variety  of 
uses,  that  he  is  led  to  strongly  recommend  the  building  of 
higli  Inirns.  A  man  who  l)iii]d3  such  a  barn  will  be  likelv 
to  do  his  work  more  thoronglily,  his  roof  and  foundation 
costing  no  more  than  for  a  low  barn. 

The  square  is  a  convenient  and  comparatively  economical 
form  of  barn  ;  but  this  form  cannot  be  used  for  one  of 
much  size,  because  of  the  difficulty  and  expense  in  getting 
long  timber,  and  the  difficulty  of  sustaining  the  roof,  with- 
out interior  posts  and  beams,  when  the  side  is  over  50  feet. 
The  use  of  the  horse-fork  is  much  more  convenient  where 
the  interior  space  is  unobstructed  by  posts  or  beams  above 
tiie  floor-beams,  for,  in  that  case,  the  grapple  on  the  traverse 


88  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

end  of  the  pitching  rope  may  be  moved  in  any  direction, 
and  the  forkful  dropped  at  any  spot  desired.  This  arrange- 
ment requires  very  little  mowing  away,  and  thus  saves  a 
large  amount  of  labor.  The  high  barn  gives  plenty  of 
room  for  the  swing  of  the  fork,  and  all  the  railway  tracks, 
contrived  to  run  over  purlines,  become  useless. 

The  Octagon. 

In  doing  work  in  barn,  concentration  is  an  important 
point.  The  shorter  the  lines  of  travel,  the  easier  the  work 
is  done ;  therefore,  barns  that  are  square  or  circular  liave 
shorter  lines  of  travel  than  the  oblong  form,  and  the  cir- 
cular or  octagonal  form  can  be  built  with  comparatively 
short  timber,  besides  affording  every  facility  for  a  self- 
supporting  roof,  or  a  roof  resting  simply  upon  the  plates 
or  outside  rim — and,  thus  constructed,  the  interior  space  of 
the  barn  is  entirely  free  of  posts  and  beams,  except  the 
floor-beams,  upon  which  to  rest  the  scaffold  to  utilize  the 
space  over  the  floor.  And  a  barn  of  this  shape,  with  a 
floor  through  the  center,  has  every  line  of  travel  equi- 
distant from  the  center,  and  one  floor  accommodates  all 
parts  of  the  barn  alike.  Besides,  the  octagonal  form  admits 
of  building  any  sized  barn,  up  to  90  feet  diameter,  without 
any  timber  more  than  39  feet.long.  A  00-foot  octagon  has 
a  circumference  or  outside  wall  of  298J'8  feet,  and  each  side 
is  only  37  feet  3K  inches  long.  This  barn  will  comfortably 
stable  114  head  of  cattle  in  its  basement,  and  contains, 
with  25-feet  posts  (besides  a  14-feet  floor  through  the  second 
story)  151,395  cubic  feet  of  space  for  storing  crops.  It 
would  store  250  tons  of  hay,  and  5,000  bushels  of  grain  in 
the  straw.  It  would  require  an  oblong  barn  40  by  180  feet 
long,  with  same  height  of  posts,  to  have  the  same  capacity 
for  stabling  cattle  and  room  for  crops.  This  long  barn 
would  have  a  circumference  of  440  feet,  or  an  outside  wall 


THE   OCTAGONAL  BARN.  SO 

142  feet  longer  than  the  octagon.  This  143  feet  of  wall, 
running  through  both  stories,  would  require  3,550  square 
feet  of  siding  above  the  basement,  and  about  1,300  cubic 
feet  of  basement  wall  more  than  the  octagon.  The  latter 
form  would  also  save  a  large  amount  of  interior  timbers. 

If  it  is  desired  to  build  a  larger  circular  barn  than  90 
feet  diameter,  it  would  be  advisable  to  build  a  duo-decagon 
(12-sided)  or  a  sex-decagon  (16-sided)  barn.  These  forms 
are  just  as  easily  constructed,  and,  where  the  diameter  is 
large,  dividing  the  circumference  into  16  sides  makes  the 
timber  for  each  side  short,  and  it  only  requires  16  outside 
posts — one  at  each  corner.  If  the  diameter  is  110  feet, 
each  side  will  be  about  22  feet  on  a  sixteen-sided  barn.  It 
is  sufficient  to  extend  girths  from  corner-post  to  corner- 
post,  and  side  it  up  and  down.  The  basement  of  this  latter 
barn  would  accommodate  150  head  of  large  cattle,  and 
contain  242,000  cubic  feet  of  space  in  the  second  story. 
This  would  hold  500  tons  of  hay,  or  300  tons  of  hay  and 
8,000  bushels  of  grain  in  the  straw.  This  form  of  barn 
has  a  remarkable  capacity  for  its  circumference.  It  has 
nearly  100  feet  less  outside  wall  than  the  barn  40  by  J.SO 
feet  long,  yet  has  a  capacity  for  storage  nearly  double;  but 
this  latter  barn  would  take  more  lumber  to  build  than  the 
large  sixteen-sided  barn.  The  circle  incloses  the  lai-gest 
area,  for  its  circumference  or  outside  wall,  of  any  form  ;  but 
the  true  circle  is  too  expensive  to  build,  and  the  octagon 
approaches  the  circle  in  economy  of  outside  wall,  and  is  as 
easily  built  as  the  square.  The  octagonal  or  16-sided 
form  is  much  less  affected  by  the  wind,  and  may  be  built 
higher  than  the  long  barn  in  windy  situations. 

This  matter  of  barn  building  is  of  so  much  importance 
to  the  improved  system  of  stock  feeding,  that  we  shall 
discuss  it  as  suited  to  small  and  large  operations,  and 
propose  to  show  how  1,000  or  more  head  may  be  fed 
economically  and  safely  under  one  roof. 


90 


FEEDING    ANIMALS. 


We  give  in  fig.  5  the  elevation  of  an  octagonal  barn  of  80 
feet  diameter,  built  by  the  author  in  1875,  inclosing  5,304 
square  feet,  having  posts  28  feet  long— with  a  capacity  to 
the  top  plates,  in  the  story  above  the  basement,  of  148,514 
cubic  feet.  This  octagon  has  an  outside  wall  of  265^  feet 
and  was  built  to  replace  four  barns  destroyed,  having  an 
aggregate  outside  wall  of  716  feet,  and  yet  this  barn  has 
about  25  per  cent,  greater  capacity  than  all  four  barns  lost, 
showing  the  great  economy  of  this  form  in  expense  of  wall 
and  siding. 


Fig.    5.— OCTAGON  BARN   (NORTH   ELEVATION). 

Explanation.—/),  plate  ;  r,  tie-rod  and  bridging  between  rafters  ;  s,  purlin  rim  ; 
t,  hip  rafters. 


THE   OCTAGONAL   BARN-. 


91 


If  we  compare  it  with  an  oblong  barn  50  x  108  feet,  the 
latter  will  inclose  the  same  number  of  square  feet,  and 
have  the  same  capacity  at  the  same  height,  but  requires  51 
feet  more  outside  wall. 

It  is  easy  to  make  the  roof  of  the  octagon  self-support- 
ing, as  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  truss.  The  plates  perform  the 
office  of  the  bottom  chord,  and  the  hip  rafters  of  the  top 
chord,  in  a  truss.     The  strain  on  the  plates  is  an  endwise 


y\^\y\j'\y\Ay\y\j^\j^\Acr\y\j^\j^\j-\:F^y\irTi' 


Af\-f\J-\nr\s\^\jr\s\j^\7\j\j^\sU\j'\j\jr\^f 


Fig.   8.— OCTAGON  BASEMENT  (NORTH  SIDE). 

^^}^^^'^'^^T^-—a  &  c  d,  doors  of  basement ;  e,  drive-way  through  the  center  •  n  c 

for  .  oot  cellar  or  any  other  purpose ;  /  A  lying-in  stall  for  cows  -/kkkkl  A,  ho?s^ 

^o  "ena^lnon  LV^.lTf t'^'''''  =  ■^■^'  ^""""K  ^""^  '*^"^  "'^  stanchions-there  should  be 
nicff^^       r    "  '^^t^^^en  thesH  spares  and  h;  gq.  cow  mangers  ;   h  h,  an  open  erated 

below  ''''''  ^"^  ''""'^  ""'  '^"  '""""'■"  ^^"'"^'  ^^'^^Sh  upon  'a  concritfflooi: 


92  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

pull,  the  bottom  of  the  roof  cannot  spread,  and  the  rafters 
being  properly  bridged  from  the  middle  to  the  top,  cannot 
crush,  and  the  whole  must  remain  rigidly  in  place.  Its 
external  form  being  that  of  an  octagonal  cone,  each  side 
bears  equally  upon  every  other  side,  and  it  has  great 
strength  without  any  cross-ties  or  beams,  re({uiring  no 
more  material  or  labor  than  the  ordinary  roof.  The  plates 
are  halved  together  at  the  corners,  and  the  lips  bolted 
togetlier  with  four  half-inch  iron  bolts  (see  fig.  6) ;  a  brace 
8x8  inches  is  fitted  across  the  inside  angle  of  the  plate 
corner,  with  a  three-fourths-inch  iron  bolt  through  each 
toe  of  the  brace  and  through  the  plate,  with  an  iron  strap 
along  the  face  of  the  brace,  taking  each  bolt,  the  nut  turn- 
ing down  upon  this  iron  strap  (see  fig.  7).  Now  the  hip 
rafter  {t),  6  x  12  inches,  is  cut  into  the  corner  of  the  plate, 
with  a  shoulder  striking  this  cross  brace,  the  hip  rafter 
being  bolted  (with  three-fourths-inch  iron  bolt)  through 
the  plate  into  the  corner  post  (see  fig.  6).  Thus  the  plate 
corner  is  made  as  strong  as  any  other  part  of  the  stick. 
There  is  a  purlin  rim  (see  fig.  5,  s)  of  8x10  inch  timber, 
put  together  like  the  plate-rim,  bolted  or  fastened  with  an 
iron  stirrup  under  the  middle  of  the  hip  rafters,  which 
plate-rim  supports  the  intermediate  rafters.  The  hips  may 
be  tied  to  the  intermediate  rafters  by  long  rods  half  way 
between  the  plate  and  the  purlin,  if  deemed  necessary  from 
the  size  of  the  roof  (r).  The  north  section  of  the  roof 
(fig.  5)  is  represented  as  uncovered,  showing  the  plate  (p), 
purlin  (s),  tie-rod  (r)  and  bridging  between  plate  and  pur- 
lin and  the  two  sets  of  bridging  above  purlin,  etc.  It  will 
be  noted  that,  in  this  form  of  roof,  the  roof-boards  act  as  a 
powerful  tie  to  hold  it  all  together,  each  nail  holding  to  the 
extent  of  its  strength,  thus  supplementing  the  strength  of 
the  plate-rim  or  bottom  chord. 

It  will  be  seen  by  fig.  5  that  there  is  a  drive-way,  fifteen 
feet  wide,  through  the  center  of  the  principal  story  from 


TFTE   BASEMENT.  93 

nortli  to  south.  There  is  a  line  of  "big  beams'*  on  either 
side  of  this  drive- way,  13  feet  high,  across  which  a  scaffold 
may  be  thrown  to  enable  ns  to  occupy  the  high  space  over 
this  floor.  The  posts  being  28  feet  high  and  roof  rising 
'rt'lH  feet,  the  cupola  floor  is  50  feet  above  the  drive-way 
floor  below.  The  space  above  these  "big  beams"  is  quite 
clear  of  any  obstruction,  and  a  horse  pitching-fork  may  be 
run  at  pleasure  to  any  part.  The  bay  for  hay  on  the  left 
side  of  this  floor  is  80  feet  long,  and  has  an  area  of  2,051 
S([uare  feet,  and  is  capable  of  holding,  when  filled  to  the 
roof  and  over  the  floor,  200  tons  of  hay.  This  bay,  extend- 
ing along  the  floor  80  feet,  may  be  divided  into  as  many 
parts  as  required  for  different  (pialities  of  hay,  and  eacii 
part  be  quite  convenient  for  filling  and  taking  out. 

On  the  right-hand  side  of  the  floor  is  a  scaffold,  eight 
feet  high,  having  the  same  area  (2,051  square  feet)  for  car- 
riages, farm  tools  and  machines  below,  and  above  the 
scaffold  is — a  height  of  18K  feet  to  top  of  the  plates — a  large 
si)ace  for  grain,  affording  ample  room  for  the  separate  stor- 
jige  of  each  kind  to  the  aggregate  of  3,000  bushels  or  more. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  large  space  in  this  barn  is  all 
reached  and  filled  from  one  floor,  saving  much  labor  in 
changing  from  one  floor  to  another. 

The  Basement. 

Fig.  8  shows  the  basement  as  we  use  it,  yet  there  are 
iiany  different  ways  in  which  it  may  be  divided  for  stock 
and  other  purposes.  We  build  the  basement  wall  of  con- 
crete. 1 1  is  not  only  the  warmest  and  best  wall  for  basemen  t 
stables,  but  is  much  cheaper  than  the  stone  wall  laid  by  a 
mason,  the  concrete  requiring  no  skilled  labor,  only  such 
skill  as  is  required  to  mix  mortar  and  tend  a  mason. 

The  drive-way  through  the  basement  is  from  west  to 
east,  being  the  feeding  floor  between  two  rows  of  cattle, 
with  heads  turned  toward  the  floor.     The  floor  is  fourteen 


94  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

and  a  half  feet  wide,  out  of  which  come  two  rows  of 
mangers  two  and  a  half  feet  wide,  leaving  a  space  of  ten 
feet  for  driving  a  wagon  through  or  running  a  car  carrying 
food  for  the  cattle. .  There  are  places  for  twenty  cows  or 
other  cattle  on  each  side,  leaving  a  space  of  sixteen  feet  at 
the  west  end  to  drive  a  cart  around  behind  the  cattle  on 
either  side  to  carry  away  the  manure  and  pass  out  at  a  side 
stable  door,  eight  feet  wide.  The  horse  stalls  are  arranged 
on  the  south  side,  but  may  be  placed  on  either  of  several 
other  sides,  or  on  all.  By  placing  tails  to  wall  and  heads 
on  an  inner  circle,  drawn  twelve  feet  from  the  wall,  with 
feed-box  room  tliree  feet  wide  for  each  horse,  with  ample 
room  at  the  rear,  sixteen  horse  stalls  may  be  arranged  on 
southwest,  south  and  southeast  sides.  But  for  200-acre 
farms  generally,  no  more  than  forty  head  of  cattle  and  six 
horses  would  be  kept,  and  for  such  our  ground  plan  would 
be  most  convenient,  because  it  furnishes  easy  access  with  a 
cart,  both  for  supplying  fodder  and  carrying  away  the 
manure.  On  our  plan,  we  have  much  space  on  the  north, 
northwest  and  northeast  sides,  which  may  be  used  for 
various  purposes,  such  as  root  cellar,  sheep-fold  for  fifty 
sheep,  or  for  stowing  away  tools,  working-wagons  and 
implements. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  basement  is  not  sunk  in  the 
earth,  but  on  the  north  and  south  sides  it  is  graded  up  to 
the  floor  of  the  second  story,  so  as  to  make  an  easy  drive- 
way into  the  barn.  The  base  line,  as  represented  on  the 
drawing,  is  four  feet  below  the  general  level  of  the  land  on 
the  north  side,  but  there  is  an  open  cliannel  of  water,  into 
Avhich  every  part  is  drained,  on  the  south  side.  The  earth 
on  the  east  and  west  sides  is  scraped  up  on  the  north  and 
south  sides  to  grade  up  the  drive-ways  into  second  story. 
This  basement  is  liglited  by  six  windows  of  twenty  lights, 
8  X  12  glass,  and  six  of  ten  lights  each. 


CIRCULAR   BASEMENT. 


05 


Basement  Laid  out  on  a  Circle. 

We  give,  in  fig.  9,  a  representation  of  an  octagonal  base- 
ment, laid  out,  in  tlie  interior,  on  a  circle,  containing  fifty- 
two  stalls  for  cows  or  cattle,  with  heads  towards  the  interior. 
For  a  fancy  breeding  establishment  these  stalls  might  be 
elevated  one  or  more  feet,  showing  all  the  animals  at  one 
view,  and  with  the  feeding  car  on  track  (c),  and  the  car  foi- 
running   out  manure  on   track   (a),  the   labor  would   be 


FifJ.  0. — OCTAGON  BASEMENT. 

Explanation.— This  represents  an  80-foot  octagon  basement  laid  ont  on  a  circle  ; 
b  b  represents  52  cow  or  cattle  stalls,  heads  toward  inner  circle  ;  c  re. -resents  a  cir- 
cular track  for  a  feeding  car  to  run  around  in  front  of  the  cows  or  cattle  ;  a.  circular 
track  for  a  manure  car  to  carry  oft'oftal ;  d  represents  one  method  of  placing  horse 
stalls  convenient  to  drive-way;  ^.vacant  space  to  be  used  for  any  purpose;//, 
drive-way. 


96  FEEDIXG    ANIMALS. 

made  convenient.  This  leaves  a  52-foot  interior  circle 
which  may  be  pnt  to  any  purpose  required.  The  truck  (c) 
takes  out  six  feet,  still  leaving  a  circle  of  forty-six  feet 
diameter.  The  horse  stalls  {d)  are  laid  out  partly  on  a 
circle,  but  are  placed  at  right  angles  with  the  drive-way. 
One  strong  point  to  be  made  in  favor  of  the  circular  plan 
is,  that  by  means  of  the  cars  running  across  the  drive-way, 
food  dropped  through  the  floor  above  upon  the  car  can  be 
run  to  every  animal  in  the  basement.  The  horse  stalls 
would  also  be  very  convenient  of  access  from  the  drive- way. 
One  side  of  the  drive-way  might  be  fitted  uj)  with  box 
stalls  for  brood  mares  or  colts,  or  calf-pens.  We  give  this 
plan  merely  as  suggestive,  and  not  as  the  best  arrangement. 
Every  one  may  divide  the  space  as  he  sees  fit.  Of  course, 
it  will  be  more  expensive  to  fit  up  on  a  circle,  but  to  one 
who  fancied  it,  a  few  dollars  would  be,  perhaps,  no  objec- 
tion. This  plan  has  been  adopted,  since  we  devised  it,  by 
some  fancy  breeders,  as  affording  the  best  arrangement 
for  showing  many  animals  and  for  convenient  display  at 
sales. 

The  plan  of  basement  given  in  fig.  8  would,  generally,  be 
preferred,  and  if  wanted  for  a  large  dairy  barn  there  is 
]-oom  for  two  parallel  floors  with  two  rows  of  cows  to  each 
floor,  giving  one  long  and  one  short  row  of  cows  to  each 
floor,  affording  ample  room  to  drive  a  cart  behind  each  row 
of  cows  to  take  away  the  manure.  One  drive-way  would 
answer  for  both  inside  rows  of  cows;  also  leaving  room  for 
a  narrow  calf-pen  on  the  outside  wall  behind  each  outside 
row  of  cows.  This  would  be  occupying  the  basement  to 
its  full  capacity,  but,  usually,  on  a  250-acre  farm,  which 
this  size  of  octagon  would  accommodate,  not  more  than 
fifty  head  of  cattle  and  horses  are  kept,  and  our  first  plan 
of  basement  would  be  the  most  convenient,  leaving  ample 
space  for  a  great  variety  of  uses. 


STABLES.  97 


Self-clean-ing  Stable. 


In  the  basement,  fig.  8,  the  platforms  n  n,  and  the  stalls 
marked  /'/,  are  made  self-cleaning  ;  and  fig.  10  shows  how 
this  is  accomplished. 

All  dairymen  and  cattle  feeders  have  felt  the  necessity  of 
some  device  that  should  lessen  the  daily  labor  of  cleaning 
the  stable,  and  especially  that  should  succeed  in  really 
keeping  the  cow  clean — a  most  necessary  requisite  to  clean 
and  wholesome  milk.  There  have  been  various  plans  of 
using  a  gutter  behind  cows  or  other  cattle  ;  but  in  all  of 
them  the  cow  was  liable  to  get  soiled  upon  the  flank,  and 
the  tail  could  fall  into  the  gutter  and  render  the  milking 
most  offensive.  If,  therefore,  a  platform  can  be  made 
which  requires  nothing  to  aid  it  in  keeping  the  cow 
clean,  provides  for  her  comfort,  is  self-acting,  durable  and 
cheap,  there  would  seem  to  be  little  left  to  accomplish  in 
this  matter. 

The  platform  (fig.  10),  invented  by  the  author,  does  all 
this,  and  has  been  in  use  in  his  stable  for  the  last  five  years. 
It  occupies  both  platforms  in  the  octagonal  basement, 
represented  by  fig.  8.  The  platform  consists  partly  of 
wood  and  partly  of  iron.  The  wooden  part  is  situated 
next  the  manger  (marked  G),  3  feet  6  inches  wide,  and 
raised  12  inches.  Behind  this  an  iron  grating,  resting  on 
an  angle-iron  sill  (marked  3),  supported  on  stone  posts  at 
the  back  side  and  on  the  wooden  platform  in  front,  4  feet 
wide.  The  gutter  under  this  iron  platform  is  4  feet  wide 
and  18  inches  deep  and  concreted  water  tight,  with  a  space 
of  10  inches  under  the  angle-iron  sill,  through  which  the 
manure  is  removed.  This  gutter  practically  holds  the 
droppings  of  cows  for  three  weeks,  except  when  muck  is 
used  to  deodorize  it,  when  it  is  filled  in  two  weeks.  The 
depth  of  this  gutter  is  quite  sufficient  to  hold  all  the 
liquid. 
5 


98 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


\ 


SELF-CLEAKING   STABLE. 


99 


The  construction  of  the  grating  will  easily  be  understood. 
Iron  joists,  K  by  2  inches  (marked  5),  set  edgewise,  reaching 
from  angle-iron  sill  to  wooden  platform,  placed  18K  inches 
apart.  Across  these,  at  right  angles,  are  laid  wrought-iron 
bars  (marked  4),  %  by  1%  inches,  fastened  to  the  joists  by 
quarter-inch  round  iron  staples  striding  the  joists  and 
coming  up  through  the  flat  bar  and  riveted.  These  flat 
bars,  on  which  the  cattle  stand,  are  placed  1%  inches  apart, 
twelve  of  them  in  number  for  this  width  of  platform,  with 
a  plank  some  10  inches  wide  covering  the  angle-iron. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  cow  must  stand  with  the  fore-feet 
upon  the  plank  platform,  and  hind-feet  upon  the  flat  iron 
bars  of  the  grating.  The  droppings  fall  directly  through 
the  openings  into  the  gutter  below  when  the  manure  is 
thin;  and  in  winter,  when  dry  food  is  given,  the  droppings 
are  pressed  through  by  the  movements  of  the  hind-feet. 
The  cow  stands  across  the  bars,  and  always  has  two  bars 
to  stand  upon,  some  large  cattle's  feet  reaching  the  third 
bar.  Cows  that  have  stood  upon  this  platform  for  five  years 
have  always  remained  clean,  healthy  and  comfortable.  The 
circulation  of  air  under  the  platform  appears  to  prevent 
diseases  of  the  feet. 


Fig.  11. 


This  platform,  above  described,  was  the  first  one  put 
into  use.  It  was  stationary.  The  next  improvement  was 
to  put  it  on  hinges,  doing  away  with  the  stone  posts,  and 
substituting  short  angle-iron  posts  instead,  as  represented 


100 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


in  figs.  11  and  12.  This  form  was  put  into  the  stables 
of  Burrill  &  Whitman,  at  Little  Falls,  N.  Y.  Fig.  12 
should  represent  the  hind-feet  of  the  cow  as  standing  near 
the  middle  of  the  grating,  instead  of  the  edge,  as  the  tread 
of  the  hind-feet  is  required  to  press  the  solid  droppings 
through  in  winter.  Fig.  11  explains  itself,  except  that  it 
may  be  well  to  mention  that  the  hinges  are  made  by  drill- 
ing a  hole  near  the  ends  of  the  iron  joists,  and  then  using 
a  wood-screw  eye-bolt  to  attach  the  grating  to  the  wooden 
platform.  These  gratings  are  made  in  sections  for  two  or 
three  cows  each.  One  man  can  turn  them  up  on  the 
hinges,  leaving  the  manure  in  the  pit  below  uncovered,  and 
easily  shoveled  into  a  wagon  to  be  taken  to  the  field. 
These  sections  are  placed  end  to  end,  and  the  bars  are  level 
and  continuous,  so  that  they  may  be  brushed  off  with  a 
stiff  broom  as  fast  as  a  man  can  walk. 


Fkj.  !•: 


The  next  style  of  this  grating  is  represented  by  fig.  13, 
which  explains  its  own  construction.  The  change  consists 
in  omitting  the  legs  and  angle-iron  sill  in  the  rear,  and 
carrying  up  the  wall,  on  the  rear  side  of  the  gutter,  to 
a  level  with  the  under  side  of  the  grating,  and  allowing 
the  back  side  of  the  grating  to  rest  upon  a  thin  timber  on 
the  top  of  the  wall. 


SELF-CLEANING    STABLE. 


101 


This  last  style  of  grating  was  put  into  the  stable  of  E. 
T.  Hayden,  of  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  and  gives  him  much  satis- 
faction. The  advantage  of  this  style  is  that  the  gutter  is 
water-tight  to  the  top,  and  the  grating  is  lighter  and 
cheaper  for  the  absence  of  the  angle-iron  sill  and  legs. 
This  has  been  tested  in  so  many  stables  that  it  may  be  con- 
sidered as  eminently  successful. 


D 

J 

1<     3  FT  4  IN 

> 

n 

JOIST  2XG   IN. 

c 

3  FT  WIDE 
2FT  DEEP 

PI 

4 

G 

Firj.  13. 

Explanation.— >4,  iron  anchor;    B,  grated  floor;    C,  concrete;    Z>,  manger; 
B,  sUl. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  plan  of  stable  completely  saves 
all  the  liquid  and  solid  manure — a  matter  of  the  highest 
importance.  In  handling  this  manure  it  is  carried  directly 
from  the  stable  to  the  field,  and  thus  prevents  any  loss  by 
leaching  and  evaporation  in  yard.  The  writer  has  found, 
by  2)ractical  figures,  that  the  saving  in  manure,  by  this  gut- 
ter-system, and  direct  application  to  the  field,  amounts  to 
five  dollars  per  cow  per  year. 

In  order  to  still  further  reduce  the  labor  of  handling 
the  manure,  and  to  make  a  more  perfect  distribution  of  it 
over  the  field,  the  writer  employs  the  manure  spreader  ; 
and  the  labor  is  now  so  remarkably  economized,  that  the 
only  manual  labor  relating  to  the  manure,  now  performed, 
consists  in  shoveling  it  from  the  gutters  into  the  manure- 
spreader — no  cleaning  of  stable;  no  handling  of  manure, 
except  in  loading  it;  and  the  distribution  is  more  complete 
than  can  be  done  by  hand-spreading. 


102  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

This  iron  grating  must  be  credited  also  with :  1st,  pre- 
venting all  rotting  of  the  wood-work  of  the  stables,  as  all 
urine  passes  at  once  through  the  bars,  and  cannot  wet  the 
joists  and  sills  of  the  barn.  2d.  Its  durability  must  be  very 
great,  or  that  of  a  dozen  wooden  stables.  3d.  Its  cost  is  very 
moderate — the  latter  form  costing  only  $6  per  cow. 

Dry  earth  or  muck  should  be  kept  in  the  basement  near 
this  platform,  and  a  little  thrown  each  day  on  the  grating, 
falling  through  upon  the  manure,  and  thus  preventing  all 
smell  and  fixing  the  ammonia,  rendering  manure  and  dry 
muck  equally  valuable.  Any  dry  earth,  such  as  cleaning 
of  ditches  or  headlands,  will  answer  every  purpose,  when 
dry  and  pulverized.  This  will  double  the  amount  of 
manure,  and  all  be  more  valuable  than  manure  kept  in  the 
common  way. 

Fig.  10  also  illustrates  a  new  mode  of  fastening  and 
watering  cattle  in  stable,  which  will  be  explained  in  a 
future  chapter.     Page  121  and  Appendix. 

The  Octagon  Adapted  to  all  Sized  Farms. 

A  little  examination  of  this  form  of  .barn  will  not  only 
show  its  adaptation  to  large  farms,  but  to  farms  of  all 
sizes — from  the  smallest  to  the  largest.  A  farmer  has  but 
to  calculate  how  much  room  he  wants  for  cattle,  how 
much  for  horses,  how  much  for  sheep,  how  much  for 
hay  and  grain,  how  much  for  carriages,  wagons,  tools,  or 
any  other  purpose,  and  he  can  inclose  just  the  number  of 
square  feet  needed,  and  with  the  shortest  outside  wall.  He 
may  be  liberal  in  his  allowance  of  room,  for  it  costs  less,  in 
proportion,  as  the  size  is  increased.  Suppose  he  requires 
for  a  fifty-acre  farm  2,090  square  feet  of  room;  this  would 
require  a  fifty-foot  octagon  or  a  40  x  52  rectangle.  Now  he 
would  require  timber  forty  feet  long  for  the  latter,  while  he 
could  build  the  octagon  with  timber  for  the  sills  and  plates 
only  twenty-two  feet  long,  and  this  would  be  the  longest 


THE   SMALL    OCTAGON.  103 

timber,  except  posts,  which  would  be  feetter  tweDty-four  or 
twenty-five  feet  long.  Each  side  would  be  only  2036  feet, 
and  the  wall  for  the  basement  1G5  feet  long,  whilst  the 
other  would  be  184  feet  long,  saving  19  feet  of  wall  and 
siding  by  the  octagon,  requiring  but  eight  corner  posts, 
and  no  intermediates,  as  the  girths  would  be  less  than 
twenty  feet  long.  He  would  require  no  interior  posts  or 
beams,  except  those  for  scaffolds.  All  the  ordinary  purlin 
posts  and  beams  would  be  saved,  and  the  labor  on  them. 
It  is  easy,  also,  to  see  that  a  few  feet  added  to  each  side 
would  furnish  room  for  another  fifty  acres,  and  so  on  to 
any  size  desired.  This  form  of  building,  properly  under- 
stood, would  lead  farmers  to  abandon  the  building  of  a 
separate  barn  for  each  specific  purpose,  and  to  provide  for 
all  their  necessities  under  one  roof.  If  several  barns  are 
placed  so  as  to  be  convenient,  the  danger,  in  case  of  a  fire, 
is  about  the  same  as  in  one  barn,  for  all  would  burn  in 
either  case. 

A  Fifty-foot  Octagon. 

To  instance  a  size  of  barn,  ample  for  a  fertile  farm  of  50 
acres,  to  accommodate  crops,  tools  and  stock,  we  select  the 
octagon  of  50  feet  diameter.  This  requires  a  basement  8 
feet  in  the  clear,  in  which  all  the  stock  on  the  farm  will  be 
kept ;  with  a  drive-way  through  the  basement  12  feet  wide, 
fifteen  cows  or  cattle  could  stand  on  each  side  with  their 
heads  to  the  drive-way  or  feeding-floor,  and,  using  2  feet  on 
each  side  of  this  floor  for  a  manger,  would  leave  a  track  for 
cart  or  wagon  of  8  feet.  Behind  each  row  of  cattle  would 
be  room  for  -4  horse  stalls  of  good  width  ;  but  as  such  a  farm 
would  not  be  likely  to  have  use  for  more  than  4  horse 
stalls,  the  space  on  the  other  side  would  be  used  for  lying- 
in  stalls  for  cows  and  calf-pens,  etc.  Here  is  abundance  of 
room  for  all  the  stock  50  to  75  acres  can  keep,  and  every- 
thing is  under  one  roof. 


104  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

Let  US  now  look  at  the  main  builcliug  above  the  base- 
ment. Posts  are  24  feet  long  ;  and  as  many  small  farmers 
may  wish  to  look  at  the  cost  of  this  barn  in  detail,  we  will 
give  specifications  of  materials  and  cost,  at  the  present  low 
figures,  which  may  be  raised  or  lowered  according  to 
locality : 

SCHEDULE. 

Feet. 

Ssills,  8  X  10— 22  feet ,....  1,176 

4  cross-sills,  8  X  10—26  feet,  spliced 602 

8  corner  posts,  8  X  10—24  feet 1,2.S0 

8  plates,  s  x  10,  22  feet 1,176 

4  floor  beams,  8  x  10—26  feet,  spliced 692 

4  door  posts,  6  X  8—13  feet 208 

4  posts,  under  floor-beams,  8  X  10 — 13  feet , . .  346 

2  scaJSold  beams,  8  X  10 — 26  feet,  spliced  (these  go  under 

one  floor-beam,  8  feet  above  the  floor) 346 

34  girths,  4  X  5 — 20  feet  (5  tiers  on  six  sides  and  2  over 

each  door 1,132 

2  girths,  4  X  8—20  feet,  over  doors 106 

8  hip-rafters,  5  X  10—34  feet 1,134 

8  middle  i-afters,  3  X  8—32  feet 512 

16  intermediate,  3  X  6—26  feet 624 

16  intermediate,  3  X  6—20  feet 480 

16  intermediate,  2  X  6—14  feet 224 

16  intermediate,  2  X  6—9  feet 128 

24  joists,  3  X  10—14  feet  (loAver  floor) 840 

34  joists,  3  X  10—17  feet  (lower  floor) 1,:S35 

17  joists,  3  X  8—17  feet  (scaffold)  578 

Plank  for  barn  floor,  12  X  50  feet  (2-inch) 1,200 

Floor  under  scaffold,  1%  inches 1,125 

Floor  under  bay,  1  incli 750 

Floor  under  scaffold,  1  inch 750 

44  braces,  4  X6,  7  feet  long 616 

Roof  boards 3,100 

Total  rough  lumber 20,551 

Four  thousand  five  hundred  feet  6-inch,  well-seasoned, 
dressed  and  matched  pine,  one-fourth  added — 5,650  feet — 
for  siding  and  cornice. 

SUMMARY  OF  COST. 

Wall,  1,487  cubic  feet  (concrete)  10c.  per  cubic  foot $147.70 

20,551  feet  coarse  lumber,  §8 164.40 

5,550  feet  pine  siding.  §17 96.00 

500  lbs.  nails,  $3 15.00 

Sash  and  glass 25.00 

Carpenter  work  and  board 275.00 

Painting  two  coats  (oxide  of  iron  and  oil) 25.00 

23  thousand  shingles 75.00 

Total  cost $823.10 


PLACE   FOR  GRAKART.  l05 

Let  us  now  look  at  the  capacity  of  this  barn.  The  bay, 
including  half  of  the  scaffold  over  the  floor,  will  store  50 
tons  of  hay.  The  scaffold  on  the  other  side  of  the  floor, 
having  the  same  square  feet  as  the  bay,  and  a  height  of  15 
feet  to  the  top  of  the  plate,  will  hold  1,000  bushels  of  grain 
in  the  straw,  or  a  like  bulk  of  other  fodder. 

The  best  place  for  the  granary  in  this  barn,  or  any 
other,  is  over  the  main  floor,  at  one  end.  Let  some  strong 
joists  be  laid  across  the  floor-beams,  and  a  matched  floor, 
14  feet  long,  and  of  the  width  of  the  floor  to  outside  of 
beams,  be  laid  on  these  joists.  Fasten  some  standards  on 
the  outside  of  the  floor-beams,  two  feet  apart,  reaching 
eight  feet  above  this  floor;  side  these  up  on  the  inside  with 
matched  pine.  Now  divide  the  space  between  these  two 
sides  into  three  parts,  by  erecting  standards  for  two  parti- 
tions, eight  feet  high.  These  partitions  will  be  four  feet 
apart,  and,  when  sided  up  with  matciied  stuff,  will  give 
three  divisions  or  bins,  which,  being  4x14x8  feet  high, 
will  hold  3G0  bushels  each.  If  more  bins  are  wanted, 
these  can  be  divided  in  the  middle,  making  six  bins,  4x7 
X  8  feet  high,  holding  180  bushels  each.  These  bins  should 
all  be  floored  over,  with  lids  on  top,  through  which  the 
grain  is  emptied.  Now  make  a  draw  in  the  bottom  of  each 
bin,  so  that  the  grain  may  be  drawn  down  through  a  cloth 
spout  into  bags.  The  grain  is  easily  elevated  into  these  bins 
by  horses,  with  the  ordinary  pitching  rope  and  pulley;  and 
the  space  occupied  by  this  granary  is  not  needed  for  other 
purposes.  We  have  found  this  arrangement  of  grain  bins  to 
save  much  labor  during  the  year.  The  space  under  the 
scaffold — 735  square  feet — will  give  room  for  buggies,  tools, 
etc.  The  floor  over  it  being  made  dust-tight,  it  Avill  be  as 
clean  as  any  barn  built  for  the  same  purpose.  Let  the  small 
farmer  scan  closely  this  form  and  size  of  barn,  and  see  if 
he  can  get  more  conveniences  for  as  much  money. 


106  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


Basement  Walls  for  Stables. 

The  stable  is,  perliaps,  the  most  important  single  feature 
about  the  barn,  as  upon  the  merits  of  this  will  largely 
depend  the  profits  of  feeding  animals  ;  and  as  more  crops 
are  grown  for  feeding  animals  than  for  feeding  man,  every- 
thiug  in  the  construction  of  a  stable  bearing  upon  the  com- 
fort and  growth  of  animals  should  be  carefully  considered. 

The  season  of  greatest  growth  in  our  domesticated  ani- 
mals is  when  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  60°  and  upwards. 
If,  therefore,  we  would  try  to  imitate  Nature  at  its  best,  we 
must  build  our  stables  in  which  the  winter  temperature 
shall  approximate  60°.  This  may  be  done  by  building  our 
basement  walls  of  material  having  very  little  conducting 
power.  Double  walls,  having  a  space  of  dead  air  between 
them,  effect  this  purpose  the  best ;  but  as  such  walls  are 
most  expensive,  we  may  adopt  a  concrete  wall,  which  has 
an  infinite  number  of  minute  air  spaces,  rendering  it  com- 
paratively non-conducting.  A  thick  stone  wall,  in  Avhich 
some  stones  reach  across  the  wall,  will  bo  found  covered 
with  frost  on  the  inside  in  winter,  and  often  with  moisture 
in  summer.  But  the  concrete  wall  is  never  penetrated  with 
frost,  and  is  never  damp,  when  pi'operly  constructed.  This 
wall  has  another  important  advantage  besides  its  minimum 
of  conducting  power,  rendering  the  stable  cool  in  summer 
and  warm  in  winter — it  is  the  cheapest  substantial  wall 
where  sand,  gravel  and  rough  stone,  or  sand  and  gravel,  or 
sand  and  rough  stone,  are  not  too  far  off.  It  can  be  built 
in  most  joarts  of  the  country  at  10  cents  per  cubic  foot  of 
wall.  And  as  this  wall  does  not  require  to  be  as  thick  as 
an  ordinary  stone  wall,  because  a  water-lime  concrete  is  much 
firmer  and  stronger  than  quick-lime,  as  used  by  masons,  for 
every  stone  is  bedded  in  water-lime  cement,  which  soon  be- 
comes as  hard  as  stone.  The  writer  has  a  wall  83^  feet 
high,  under  a  large  barn,  which  has  stood  the  heaviest  wind 


LAYING    OUT   OCTAGONAL   WALL.  107 

and  a  great  pressure,  although  it  is  only  15  inches  thick  at 
bottom  and  12  inches  at  top.  This  is  heavy  enough  for 
any-sized  octagon,  because  in  this  form  one  side  braces 
against  every  other  side.  In  a  concrete  wall  under  a  very 
long  barn  it  would  he  proper  to  have  a  short  pier  built 
against  the  inside  every  50  feet  to  prevent  a  side  swaying 
in  a  strong  wind. 

In  building  the  concrete  wall  the  service  of  a  mason  is 
quite  unnecessary.  You  need  only  good,  common  laborers, 
one  of  whom  is  learned  in  mixing  the  materials  in  jiroper 
proportions.  Anyone  who  is  capable  of  tending  a  mason 
can  mix  the  materials  and  superintend  placing  them  in  the 
boxes. 

Preparations  for  Laying  Out  the  Wall. 

If  there  is  moisture  to  come  to  the  wall,  water-lime  must 
be  used,  and  it  is  well  to  carry  two  or  three  feet  above  the 
ground  with  concrete.  The  place  should  also  be  excavated 
one- or  two  feet  beyond  the  proposed  wall,  so  as  to  leave  an. 
air-space  on  the  outside,  giving  the  wall  a  chance  to  dry 
and  become  hard.  If,  in  any  case,  you  go  into  the  slate 
rock,  which  is  always  full  of  seams  charged  with  moisture, 
you  must  not  allow  the  concrete  to  be  built  against  this 
rock,  for  the  moisture  in  the  rock  coming  into  the  thin 
mortar  will  cause  the  milk  of  lime  to  run  out  and  leave  an 
infinite  number  of  line  pores  through  which  water  will  run ; 
but  if  no  water  is  allowed  to  come  to  it  while  drying,  it 
will  be  water  and  air-tight.  It  is  also  well  to  have  a  drain 
cut  lower  than  the  bottom  of  the  wall,  on  the  outside,  to 
carry  off  any  water  that  might  otherwise  come  against  it, 
which  will  render  the  basement  dry. 

How  TO  Lay  Out  an  Octagonal  Wall. 

The  shape  of  this  wall  may  give  some  trouble  to  get  it 
so  exact  as  to  receive  the  lower  rim  of  timber  or  sills.     It 


108  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

should  come  even  with  the  outside  of  the  sills.  The  plan 
we  adopt  is  so  simple  and  easily  carried  out  that  it  is  here 
given  as  a  guide.  The  foreman  in  building  this  form  of  a 
barn  will  always  have  a  working  plan.  Let  him  get  the 
exact  measure  from  the  center  to  one  corner.  Now  let 
him  make  a  measure  of  this  exact  length,  with  a  three- 
eighths  hole  at  one  end — that  is,  from  the  center  of  this 
three-eighths  hole  to  the  other  end  should  be  the  exact 
length  from  the  center  of  the  octagon  to  one  corner.  Now, 
having  found  the  center  of  your  proposed  space  to  be 
walled  in,  drive  a  stake  here  firmly  into  the  ground,  saw  it 
off  four  inches  high,  bore,  and  drive  a  three-eighths  pin 
into  the  top  of  this  stake,  and  place  the  hole  bored  in  one 
end  of  the  measure  on  this  pin.  Now  bring  the  opposite 
end  where  you  wish  the  first  corner,  and  drive  a  peg  at  the 
end  of  the  measure  to  make  the  first  corner.  Then  take 
the  pattern  your  carpenter  has  made  for  the  sill  (and  he 
should  always  have  an  exact  pattern,  so  that  he  may  make 
no  mistake)  and  put  the  outside  corner  on  the  cent(5r  of 
this  first  peg,  letting  one  man  hold  it  while  the  measure  is 
swung  round  to  the  other  end  of  this  sill  pattern;  and 
when  the  ends  of  the  measure  and  pattern  are  brought 
together  you  have  the  second  corner,  at  which  you  will 
drive  another  peg.  Now  move  your  sill  pattern  to  tbe 
second  peg,  and  carry  your  measure  to  the  other  end  for 
the  third  corner,  and  so  on  till  you  come  around  to  the 
first  peg  driven.  If  the  work  is  well  done  you  cannot 
avoid  placing  all  your  corners  equi-distant  from  the  center 
and  in  accurate  octagonal  form. 

Constructing  the  Boxes  for  the  Wall. 

Having  determined  the  place  and  excavated  for  the  wall, 
construct  the  boxes  as  follows :  Take  3x4  scantling  for 
the  standards,  a  little  longer  than  the  wall  is  high,  place 
these  on  each  side  of  the  proposed  wall,  as  far  apart  as  the 


BUILDING    C0:N'CKETE    WALL.  199 

thickness  of  the  wall  and  the  thickness  of  the  plank  for 
the  boxes.  The  plank  should  be  14  inches  wide,  IH  inches 
thick,  and  of  a  length  to  accommodate  the  wall.  If  the 
wall  is  32  feet  long,  then  16-feet  plank  will  be  the  right 
length.  If  these  standards  are  placed  15  inches  apart,  the 
plank  inside  the  standards  would  leave  12  inches  for  the 
wall.  These  standards  are  held  the  proper  distance  at  the 
bottom  by  nailing  a  thin  piece  of  board  across  under  the 
lower  end,  and  fastening  the  tops  with  a  cross-piece.  The 
wall  is  built  over  these  pieces  at  the  bottom,  and  they  are 
left  in  the  wall.  The  standards  are  plumbed,  and  made  fast 
by  braces  outside.  Now,  it  will  be  seen  that  these  planks 
can  be  moved  upon  the  inside  of  the  standards  as  fast  as 
the  wall  goes  up.  The  planks  on  the  outside  of  the  wall 
will,  of  course,  be  longer  than  those  on  the  inside,  by  the 
thickness  of  the  wall.  The  door  frames  and  window 
frames  will  have  jambs  as  wide  as  the  wall  is  thick,  and 
will  make  standards  for  that  place.  The  door  frames  must 
be  placed  before  the  wall  is  begun.  There  will  be  a  pair  of 
standards  at  each  end  of  the  plank  ;  but  the  pair  in  the 
middle  of  the  wall  will  hold  the  ends  of  both  planks.  To 
hold  the  planks  from  springing  out  between  the  standards, 
take  a  piece  of  narrow  hard- wood  board,  two  feet  long, 
bore  a  two-inch  hole  at  each  end,  having  fifteen  inches 
between  them ;  put  a  strong  pin,  two  feet  long,  through 
these  holes  some  ten  inches.  Now,  these  pins  will  just  fit 
over  the  outside  of  the  box-plank,  and  by  putting  a  brace 
between  the  upper  ends  will  hold  them  tight  against  the 
plank,  preventing  their  springing  out.  Two  of  these 
clamps  will  be  required  for  each  set  of  planks  16  feet  long. 
Now,  when  the  box-planks  are  placed  all  around  the  wall, 
begin  and  fill  in  the  concrete  mortar  and  stone,  as  herein- 
after described  ;  and  when  you  get  round,  if  water-lime  is 
used,  you  may  raise  the  plank  one  foot  and  go  around 
again,  raising  the  wall  one  foot  each  day,  if  you  have  men 


110  FEEDIXCr    AXIMALS. 

enough.  You  will  place  the  window  frames  in  the  boxes 
when  the  wall  is  raised  high  enough  to  bring  the  top  of 
the  frame  to  the  top  of  the  proposed  wall.  The  jambs 
and  sills  of  the  window  frames  will  be  as  wide  as  the  door 
frames. 

Proportioxs  for  Water-lime  Con^crete. 

If  3'ou  have  only  sand  to  use,  mix  five  parts  with  one  of 
water-lime,  thoroughly,  while  dry;  then  wet  into  a  thin 
mortar  and  use  immediately.  But  if  you  also  have  gravel, 
mix  the  sand  and  water-lime,  four  to  one,  then  mix  into 
this  five  or  six  of  gravel,  make  into  a  thin  mortar  and  use 
at  once.  This  will  make  a  concrete  of  about  nine  to  one. 
If  you  also  have  stones  to  lay  with  it,  put  these  stones  into 
the  boxes  and  cover  with  this  mortar,  and  all  the  stone 
you  put  in  will  save  so  much  mortar,  and  make  your  wall 
stronger  Avhile  new.  If  you  use  only  sand  and  stone,  then 
mix  the  water-lime  one  to  five,  and  lay  the  stone  with  it. 
The  way  is  to  put  a  layer  of  an  inch  of  mortar  in  the 
bottom  and  then  a  layer  of  stone,  then  of  mortar  and  so 
on,  letting  the  mortar  come  over  the  edge  of  tlie  stone. 

If  the  stones  are  not  permitted  to  come  quite  to  the  out- 
side of  the  wall,  tlie  mortar  ov^r  them  will  prevent  them 
conducting  moisture  or  frost  through.  The  mortar  should 
be  tamped  in,  so  as  to  fill  every  crevice. 

There  should  be  plenty  of  light  in  such  a  basement,  for 
the  health  of  the  animals.  Light  is  much  more  important 
than  is  generally  supposed.  The  light  of  such  a  stable 
should  be  as  great  as  in  the  living  room  of  a  dwelling- 
house. 

New  Way  of  Buildixg  Loxg  Barxs. 

We  have  shown  the  great  economy  and  convenience  of 
the  octagonal  over  that  of  the  oblong  form.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  the  circular  form  brings  tlie  labor  into  muoli 


BUILDING   LONG   BARNS. 


Ill 


smaller  compass,  this  form  of  barn  requiring  less  travel  in 
feeding  the  animals  and  less  labor  in  storing  the  crops. 
But  the  writer  knows  how  tenaciously  the  farmers  hold  to 
old  ways  and  opinions;  and  since  they  will  largely  build 
the  oblong  form,  it  may  be  of  service  to  show  them  how 
cheaply  they  may  avoid  many  of  the  interior  posts  and 
beams  which  so  obstruct  labor  in  filling  such  barns. 


Fig.  14. 

If  the  barn  is  40  feet  wide  and  the  posts  25  feet  long,  all 
the  purlin  posts  and  beams  may  be  left  out,  and  these 
obstructions  thus  avoided  by  using  a  long,  strong  brace 
from  the  top  of  each  cross-beam,  over  the  floor,  to  near  the 
top  of  each  outside  post.  If  the  floor  of  the  second  story 
runs  lengthwise  of  the  barn,  each  bent  will  have  a  cross- 
beam, the  top  of  which  will  be  13  feet  above  the  floor, 
running  across  the  barn  from  outside  post  to  outside  post. 
Now,  instead  of  the  ordinary  short  brace  from  the  top  of 
tins  beam  to  the  outside  post,  the  brace  should  be  6  x  8 


112  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

inches  square,  of  hard,  strong  wood,  and  have  12  feet  run 
from  the  post  on  top  of  the  beam,  and  10  feet  run  up  the 
post,  reaching  nearly  to  the  top.     (See  fig.  14.) 

These  braces  should  be  framed  into  a  shallow  boxing  at 
each  foot  on  beam  and  post,  and  firmly  held  in  its  place  by 
^  M-inch  iron  bolt  through  the  foot  of  the  brace  and  beam 
or  post,  and  the  nut  turned  up  on  a  broad  washer  on  foot 
of  the  brace.  The  nut  may  be  tightened  when  the  timber 
shrinks.  This  will  hold  the  foot  of  the  brace  very  firmly, 
and  the  brace,  being  so  long,  will  hold  the  top  of  the  post 
rigidly  in  place  and  prevent  the  plates  from  spreading. 

Then  let  the  roof  be  between  a  quarter  and  a  third  pitch; 
the  rafters,  3x6  inches,  and  spread  not  more  than  28 
inches  from  center  to  center.  Collar-beam  each  pair  of 
rafters,  4  feet  below  the  ridge,  with  iMx  4-inch  stuff,  well 
nailed.  This  will  hold  the  roof  as  safely  as  purlins,  and  it 
will  be  practically  free  from  obstructions  above  the  beams. 
It  is  true  these  cross-beams  over  the  floor  will  be  somewhat 
in  the  way,  as  compared  to  the  self-supporting  roof  of  the 
octagon ;  but  there  is  always  room  to  elevate  the  horse-fork 
between  the  beams,  and,  there  being  no  obstruction  above, 
the  fork  may  be  run  to  the  roof  without  hinderance. 

These  strong  braces  from  beam  to  post  running  to  the 
back  side  of  the  bay,  and  at  right-angles  with  the  floor,  will 
not  at  all  obstruct  filling  or  pitching  out  from  the  bay. 

Let  us  call  attention  to  the  great  economy  as  well  as 
convenience  of  this  improvement  of  the  long  barn.  If  this 
long  barn  be  40  x  180  feet,  to  compare  with  a  90-foot 
octagon,  it  would  require  12  bents;  and,  consequently, 
there  would  be  24  outside  posts,  requiring  24  strong  braces, 
bolted  as  described.  The  labor  of  framing  these  24  braces 
would  be  less  than  framing  the  24  purlin  posts.  Forty- 
eight  bolts,  16  inches  long,  required  to  hold  the  braces, 
would  cost,  with  washers,  16  cents  each,  or  $7.68  only,  for 
this  large  barn.     Now,  let  us  see  what  timber  it  would 


BARN    FOR   ONE   THOUSAND    HEAD.  llo 

save.  Twelve  cross-purlin  beams,  8  x  8,  20  feet  long — 1,284 
feet ;  360  feet  of  8  x  8  timber,  for  long  purlin  plates,  being 
1,920  feet  of  lumber;  48  six-foot  braces  at  foot  and  top  of 
the  posts — 576  feet;  amounting  in  all  to  3,780  feet  of 
lumber,  costing  $40  or  more,  according  to  location ;  and 
the  labor  of  framing  the  timber  and  putting  together  would 
be  at  least  as  much  more.  The  average  saving  by  the 
improved  method  would  be  -SIOO. 

It  will  be  seen  that  from  this  long  floor  the  barn  can  be 
completely  filled  to  the  ridge  with  the  horse-fork,  and 
would  require  but  little  labor  in  mowing  away. 

In  this  form  the  barn  may  be  made  any  length  desired, 
and  may  afterwards  be  extended  at  will.  This  form  of 
long  barn  requires  the  smallest  amount  of  timber  and 
lumber  consistent  .with  its  length ;  but  the  travel  from 
each  end  of  this  barn  to  the  center  is  90  feet,  whilst  in  the 
90-foot  octagon  it  is  but  45  feet,  each  having  the  same 
capacity. 

This  barn  is  suj^posed  to  have  a  basement  for  the  animals. 
But  to  make  the  basement  of  this  barn  as  convenient  in 
space  for  carrying  away  the  manure  as  the  octagon  it  would 
require  to  be  44  feet  wide. 

The  great  point  about  this  form  of  oblong  barn  is  the 
facility  of  lengthening  it  at  pleasure,  and  its  comparative 
freedom  from  interior  posts  or  obstructions. 

Barn  for  1,000  Head  of  Cattle. 

Having  discussed  the  best  form  of  barn,  and  described  a 
cheap  and  convenient  method  uf  building  oblong  barns, 
which  may  be  lengthened  at  any  time  to  suit  convenience, 
without  any  change  in  its  present  form,  giving  reasons  for 
preferring  the  octagonal  form,  except  for  barns  40  feet 
square  or  less,  we  now  proceed  to  describe  two  forms  for  a 
barn  that  will  accommodate  large  feeding  operations  upon 
western  farms,  where  the  large  feeders  shall  be  convinced 


114  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

of  the  greater  economy  of  controlling  the  temperatiiro  in 
which  their  cattle  are  kept  in  winter  by  warm  barns, 
instead  of  exposing  them  to  the  cold,  external  air,  with  its 
storms  of  wind,  rain  and  snow,  and  expending  a  large 
amonnt  of  food  to  produce  the  heat  which  is  lost  by  this 
exposure.  The  time  will  certainly  come  when  there  shall 
be  an  accurate  comparison  between  the  two  systems  of 
out-door  and  in-door  feeding  in  winter.  As  heretofore 
stated,  all  the  comparisons  made  between  these  two  modes 
of  feeding  have  been  with  cattle  unaccustomed  to  in-door 
feeding,  and  the  nervous  excitement  counterbalanced  the 
benefit  of  the  warmer  temperature,  there  remaining  only 
the  saving  in  food.  This  period  of  out-door  feeding  has 
occurred  in  every  state  during  the  first  half-century  of  its 
growth,  but  has  gradually  disappeared  as  land  and  food 
became  dearer. 

If  a  large  number  of  cattle  are  to  be  fed  on  one  farm 
large  barns  will  be  more  economical  than  small  ones.  But 
if  it  is  proposed  to  feed  one  thousand  head  of  cattle  under 
one  roof,  the  form  of  this  barn  will  have  much  to  do  with 
its  cost,  as  well  as  the  expense  of  labor  in  feeding.  If  it 
were  constructed  in  one  long  barn,  with  two  rows  of  cattle, 
or  500  head  in  a  row,  the  barn  must  be  1,625  feet  long,  or 
nearly  100  rods.  This  would  be  quite  too  long  drawn  out. 
We  must  seek  for  a  form  of  barn  radiating  from  a  center, 
with  eight  double  rows  of  cattle.  This  will  give  a  distance 
of  only  203  feet  each  way  from  the  center,  allowing  3  feet 
3  inches  for  each  steer. 

Octagon'  Eight-wixged  Barn. 

But  as  room  will  be  required  at  the  center  for  many 
purposes,  in  feeding  so  many  cattle,  we  must  have  an 
octagonal  center,  each  side  of  which  is  wide  enough  for  a 
wing  to  radiate  30  feet  wide.  This  will  require  an  octagonal 
center  80  feet  in  diameter,  giving  sides  about  33  feet  2 


SQL'A RE-CROSS   BARN".  115 

inches  long.  Now,  eight  wings,  30  feet  wide  and  200  feet 
long,  each  having  room  for  126  head  of  cattle,  will  contain 
in  all  1,008  head.  From  this  octagonal  center  it  will  be 
just  200  feet  to  the  most  distant  animal  in  either  of  the 
wings.  Each  wing  will  be  opposite  a  like  wing  on  the 
other  side  of  the  octagonal  center,  and  consequently  there 
may  be  a  continuous  floor  from  each  through  the  center 
and  the  opposite  wing,  and  from  the  center  either  of  the 
eight  wings  is  equally  accessible.  The  reader  will  see  at  a 
glance  how  compact  and  conveniently  reached  all  these 
thousand  cattle  are.  Each  wing  should  stand  upon  a  base- 
ment wall,  8  feet  high  (the  basement  story  occupied  with 
the  cattle),  and  it  may  be  built  as  capacious  as  the  feeder 
requires  for  winter  storage.  The  fodder  or  grain  over  the 
basement  can  be  easily  dropped  through  upon  the  feeding 
floors  below,  so  that  the  convenience  in  handling  food  for 
the  cattle  could  not  be  greater.  But  there  are  some  draw- 
backs m  this  eight-winged  barn  which  we  will  point  out, 
and  see  if  they  can  be  avoided  by  any  other  plan. 

These  long  wings  have  the  prime  objection  of  the  narrow, 
oblong  barn — too  much  outside  wall,  and  too  much  timber 
for  the  space  inclosed.  This  could  be  improved  by  building 
the  wings  60  feet  wide,  giving  room  for  two  double  rows 
of  cattle,  so  that  each  wing  should  contain  252  cattle, 
instead  of  126.  This  would  dispense  with  one-half  of  the 
wings,  and  still  hold  the  same  number  of  cattle.  But  the 
sides  of  an  octagonal  center  will  not  admit  of  so  wide  a 
wing ;  we  must,  therefore,  have  a  quadrangular  center  of 
62  feet  diameter,  with  four  wings,  62  feet  wide  and  200 
feet  long,  radiating  from  the  four  sides  of  the  quadrangle. 

This  will  be  a 

Square-Cross  Barn, 

having  all  its  extreme  parts  equidistant  from  the  center. 
It  will  be  the  same  distance  from  this  quadrangular  center 


110  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

to  the  extreme  animal  in  either  wing  as  frum  the  octagonal 
center.  This  form  will,  therefore,  be  equall}-  convenient. 
By  doubling  the  width  of  the  wings,  we  dispense  with  eight 
long  sides,  200  feet  each,  or  1,600  feet ;  and  as  the  ends  of 
the  four  wings  are  the  same  length  as  the  eight  wings,  the 
saving  in  outside  wall  is  1,600  feet.  And  if  these  sides  art^ 
20  feet  high,  and  boarded  up  and  down  w4th  a  two-inch 
batten,  it  will  take  36,933  feet  to  cover  these  sides  thus 
dispensed  with.  It  will  also  save  all  the  outside  and 
interior  posts  of  the  four  wings  dispensed  with,  as  it  will 
require  no  more  posts  in  a  wing  60  feet  wide  than  in  one 
30  feet  wide.  This  will  make  a  saving  of  about  22,000 
feet ;  and  the  outside  sills  and  plates  on  these  eight  long 
sides  will  be  saved,  amounting  to  24,000  feet,  besides  girths 
and  braces — amounting  in  all  to  a  saving  of  100,000  feet. 
The  roofs  and  floors  will  cover  the  same  number  of  square 
feet  as  in  the  eight  wings,  and  cost  about  the  same.  It 
w^ould  also  save  14,-iOO  cubic  feet  of  wall.  The  whole 
Baving  by  building  the  wings  ^60  feet  wide  could  not  be 
less  than  two-fifths  of  the  whole  cost  of  the  barn  ;  and  the 
convenience  and  economy  of  labor  must  be  even  greater 
than  with  the  eight  narrow  wings.  This  square-cross  barn 
has  the  capacity  to  feed,  conveniently  and  comfortably,  one 
thousand  head  of  cattle  ;  and  it  now  remains  to  notice 
some  of  the  details  of  construction. 

The  quadrangular  center,  62  feet  in  diameter,  may  be 
built  with  large  corner-posts,  say  14  x  14  inches  square,  37 
feet  long,  and  the  plates  and  girths  of  the  wing  may  be 
framed  into  these  posts  ;  but  it  probably  would  be  better 
that  the  wing  should  have  separate  corner-posts,  and  they 
be  bolted  to  the  posts  of  the  center.  The  quadrangular 
center  should  be  high  enough  above  the  wings  to  clear  the 
ridge  of  its  roof.  This  would  require  the  posts  of  the 
center  building  to  be  17  or  18  feet  longer  than  the  wing 
posts,  as  the  ridge  of  the  wing  roof  should  rise  at  least  17 


SQUA.RE-CROSS   BARN".  117 

feefc  in  GO  feet,  and  come  up  under  the  cornice  of  the  center 
building.  As  these  wings  will  cost  about  the  same  money 
with  posts  16  feet  long  as  with  posts  20  feet,  and  the  latter 
height  will  hold  about  40  per  cent,  more,  and  as  this  storage 
room  will  be  wanted  for  so  many  animals,  it  will  be  better 
to  provide  room  in  abuudance,  and  make  the  posts  20  feet 
long. 

The  floor  in  the  wiug  above  the  basement  will  run  length- 
wise of  the  building,  and  will  be  16  feet  wide,  so  that  the 
posts  on  either  side  of  the  floor,  running  up  to  the  cross- 
beam over  the  floor,  may  stand  on  a  sill  running  lengthwise 
over  the  basement,  and  eight  feet  from  the  center,  sup- 
ported by  the  stancliion  timbers.  These  two  sills  will  be 
strongly  supported  the  whole  length  by  the  stanchion  posts, 
placed  only  38  inches  from  center  to  center,  and  will  con- 
se({uently  hold  the  whole  interior  structure  above.  The 
hays  on  each  side  of  the  floor  will  be  22  feet  wide,  and 
there  will  be  no  loss  in  so  wide  a  floor,  as  the  hay  may  be 
mowed  one  or  two  feet  upon  each  edge  of  the  floor  if  more 
room  is  desired.  There  will  be  12  bents,  the  outside  posts 
being  about  18  feet  2  inches  from  center  to  center.  The 
top  of  the  cross-beams,  running  from  side  to  side  of  the 
l)arn,  will  be  13  feet  above  the  sill,  and  will  be  spliced  at 
the  post,  or  between  the  posts,  on  either  side  of  the  floor. 
On  three  of  the  bents  the  cross-beams  should  be  carried  up 
nearly  to  the  plates,  and  the  posts  at  the  side  of  the  floor 
must  also  be  carried  up  to  support  the  beam.  The  three 
bents  (every  third  one)  will  tie  the  barn  together,  and, 
being  so  far  apart,  will  not  obstruct  pitching  with  the 
horse-fork.  These  high  beams,  besides  being  pinned  to  the 
outside  posts,  should  have  a  stirrup  around  the  post,  coming 
back  ten  inches  upon  the  beam,  with  a  fs-inch  ])olt  through 
the  stirrup  and  the  beam  turned  up  tight  with  a  nut;  and, 
if  the  beams  are  well  spliced  in  the  middle,  this  will  hold 
the  barn  firmly  from  spreading  at    the  plates.     Now,  to 


118  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

prevent  this  long  wing  from  rocking  or  swaying  by  a  strong 
broadside  wind,  these  bents  with  the  high  beams  should 
have  a  long,  stiff  brace,  running  from  the  foot  of  the  post 
on  the  side  of  the  floor  to  the  outside  post,  just  under  this 
high  beam.  Such  a  long  brace  on  each  side  will  hold  the 
barn  rigidly  from  rocking.  And  whilst  speaking  of  braces, 
let  it  be  remembered  that  a  brace  is  valuable  just  in 
proportion  to  its  length.  The  braces  from  the  outside 
posts  up  to  the  plates  should  have  a  four-foot  run. 
They  will  assist  very  much  in  sustaining  any  weight 
upon  the  plates.  It  is  not  intended  to  have  any  purlins 
in  these  wings  to  support  the  roof,  even  though  they 
be  60  feet  wide.  The  brace  on  top  of  the  beam,  as  de- 
scribed on  page  112,  for  the  long  barn,  will  have  a  run,  on 
beam  from  post,  of  12  feet,  running  up  the  post  just  under 
the  plate,  and  fastened  by  bolt,  as  there  described.  This 
will  hold  the  plates  absolutely  rigid,  and  the  roof  will  not 
spread  them.  The  rafters  will  be  as  there  described,  only 
they  should  not  be  placed  more  than  two  feet  apart,  and 
the  collar-beams  should  be  ll£x6  inches,  and  placed  six 
feet  below  the  ridge,  with  every  other  pair  of  rafters  double 
collar-beamed  ;  that  is,  with  a  collar-beam  nailed  upon  each 
side  of  the  rafters.  This  will  make  a  strong  shingle  roof. 
The  collar-beams  will  be  some  20  feet  long,  and  will  be 
about  as  good  a  support  to  the  roof  as  purlin  b:^ams.  The 
collar-beams  would  be  as  high  as  the  barn  would  be  likely 
to  be  filled,  so  that  no  room  will  be  lost,  and  the  barn  will 
be  practically  free  from  obstructions  to  pitching  with  a 
horse-fork. 

In  the  bents,  where  the  cross-beams  are  raised  nearly  to 
the  plates,  there  must  be  a  beam  framed  into  the  posts  on 
each  side  of  the  floor,  13  feet  above  the  sills,  to  correspond 
with  the  other  beams  over  the  floor,  upon  which  scaffold- 
ing maybe  placed  for  using  the  room  over  the  floor.  It 
remains  only  to  be  mentioned  that  the  interior  sills  are 


BASEMENT   FOR   CATTLE.  119 

four  cross  sills,  40  feet  apart,  to  tie  the  barn  together  at 
the  bottom,  and  two  sills  running  lengthwise,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  floor — that  is,  the  center  of  each  of  these  long 
sills  is  placed  eight  feet  from  the  center  of  the  barn.  The 
joists  for  the  bays  will  run  from  these  long  sills,  on  each 
side  of  the  floor,  to  the  outside  sill — about  21  feet,  and 
these  joists  may  be  supported  near  the  center  by  a  row  of 
stanchion  timbers.  Each  of  these  long  sills  come  over  a 
row  of  stanchion  timbers  in  the  basement  below. 

The  reader  will  see  that  these  wings  above  the  basement 
are  built  in  the  simplest  manner,  using  no  surplus  material, 
and  as  cheap  as  may  be  consistent,  with  substance  and 
durability. 

Basement  for  Cattle. 

We  will  now  examine  the  construction  of  the  basements 
to  these  long  wings.  The  wall  under  each  of  these  wings, 
if  built  of  concrete,  15  inches  thick  at  the  bottom,  12 
inches  at  top,  and  8  feet  high,  being  162  feet  long,  would 
contain  1,201  cubic  feet,  and  could  be  built  in  most  places 
for  10  cents  per  cubic  foot,  or  $420  per  wing.  The  wall 
under  the  center  would  be  1,504  cubic  feet,  and  cost  $150  ; 
tlie  wall  under  the  entire  square-cross  barn  would  cost 
$1,830.  These  long  sides  would  require  something  to 
stiffen  the  wall  sidewise ;  but  a  pier  built  against  the  wall 
on  the  inside  would  be  in  the  way,  and  on  the  outside 
would  look  unsightly,  so,  to  avoid  the  necessity  for  such 
l)iers,  let  a  T  be  made  of  strong  iron,  say  M  x  2  inches. 
The  long  end  of  the  T  should  be  about  20  inches,  and 
built  into  the  wall,  and  the  cross  lie  across  the  top  of  the 
wall  directly  under  the  sill.  The  top  of  the  T  should  pro- 
ject beyond  the  sill  on  each  side  far  enough  to  have  a 
M-inch  hole  punched,  into  which  to  insert  a  piece  of  the 
same  flat  iron,  six  inches  long,  rounded  at  one  end.  This 
will  attach  the  wall  to  the  sill.  There  should  be  four  of 
these  T  's  for  each   side — one  near  each  cross-sill,  40  feet 


120  FEEDING   AKIMALS. 

apart.  This  will  hold  the  whole  wall  to  the  beam  and  pre- 
vent any  swaying.  These  long  sides  will  give  room  for 
inserting  plenty  of  windows  for  light,  the  frames  placed  in 
the  boxes,  and  the  concrete  built  over  them.  The  sash 
may  be  hung  on  a  pivot  in  the  center,  so  as  to  open  easily 
to  give  ventilation  at  certain  seasons  ;  but  the  fresh  air 
should  be  introduced  through  the  wall  near  the  bottom, 
tlirough  hard-burned  earthen  or  pottery  pipes,  ir)-inch 
bore,  just  long  enough  to  reach  through  the  wall.  These 
pipes  may  be  laid  in  the  boxes  bedded  in  the  concrete,  and 
the  concrete  tamped  down  upon  them.  They  may  be 
placed  ten  feet  apart  and  will  not  weaken  in  the  wall. 
Close  covers  may  be  fitted  to  the  inside,  so  as  to  shut  them 
at  will ;  and  with  proper  ventilators  to  discharge  the  heated 
and  vitiated  air  through  the  upper  part  of  the  barn,  there 
will  be  a  constant  circulation  of  fresh  air  through  the 
basement. 

One  other  point  must  be  mentioned  in  reference  to  the 
wall.  A  concrete  wall  contains  a  large  amount  of  moisture, 
and  if  the  sills  are  to  be  placed  on  before  the  wall  becomes 
quite  dry,  which  is  usually  the  case,  the  moisture  will  pass 
up  into  the  green  timber  of  the  sill,  form  a  coating  of  lime 
on  it,  and  prevent  the  sap  from  escaping,  and  the  result  is 
a  rapid  decay  of  the  timl)ei'.  To  prevent  this,  take  well- 
seasoned  pine  boards,  12  inches  Avide,  coat  one  side  with 
gas  tar,  and  bed  this  tarred  side  in  the  mortar  on  top  of 
the  wall.  The  sills  are  laid  on  this  leveled  board,  and  no 
moisture  can  come  through  this  board  into  the  sill  to  rot 
it.  This  point  is  important — has  been  determined  in  our 
practical  experience. 

Laying  out  the  Basement. 

These  long  stables  must  be  laid  out  so  as  to  render  the 
labor  as  convenient  as  possible.  There  must  be  easy  access 
to   everv   animal    in    the   stable,  and    this   becomes   mo^'e 


LAYING   OUT   BASEMENT.  121 

important  when  one  thousand  cattle  are  to  be  provided  for 
Cattle  are  most  easily  attended  when  placed  in  double  rows, 
with  their  heads  turned  towards  one  feeding  floor. 

In  this  long  basement,  the  first  row  of  stanchion  posts 
will  be  placed  8  feet  from  the  wall,  on  the  side  of  the  first 
feeding  floor,  14  feet  wide.  On  the  other  side  of  the 
feeding  floor  is  the  second  row  of  stanchion  posts,  coming 
up  under  one  of  the  long  sills,  described  above.  Two  and 
one-half  feet  being  occupied  by  mangers  on  each  side  of 
this  floor,  will  leave  nine  feet  for  a  drive-way.  Along  this 
floor  may  pass  a  cart  or  a  wagon,  with  green  food  in 
summer,  or  fodder  in  winter.  The  third  row  of  stanchion 
posts  will  be  10  feet  from  the  last,  under  the  second  long 
sill,  on  the  side  of  second  feeding  floor;  and  the  fourth 
row  will  be  14  feet  from  the  third,  on  the  other  side  of  the 
second  feeding  floor,  and  8  feet  from  the  other  wall.  Here 
two  rows  of  cattle  stand,  with  tails  to  the  wall,  and  the 
two  middle  rows  stand  tail  to  tail,  facing  upon  opposite 
floors.  The  largest  animals  should  be  placed  in  middle 
rows,  as  there  is  the  most  room.  These  stanchion  posts  are 
placed  3  feet  2  inches  from  center  to  center,  and  the  cattle 
are  best  fastened  to  the  center  of  a  chain  stretching  from 
staple  to  staple  driven  into  each  stanchion  post.  These 
chains  slide  up  and  down  on  these  staples,  as  shown  in  fig.  10. 
The  mangers  may  be  placed  20  inches  from  the  ground, 
and,  with  long  staples,  the  cattle  may  lie  down  comfortably. 
One  of  the  best  ways  to  feed  cattle,  with  i)lenty  of  bedding 
and  muck  for  deodorizing,  is  to  let  them  stand  three  or 
four  months  on  their  manure,  and,  the  mangers  being 
placed  high,  the  manure  may  accumulate  two  feet  deep 
under  them,  and  they  may  keep  quite  clean,  with  the 
Ijedding  and  muck,  and  the  manure  will  be  trodden  so 
hard  as  to  ferment  very  little.  When  a  lot  of  cattle  is 
sold,  then  wagons  may  be  driven  through  to  carry  off"  the 
manure.  We  have  seen  cattle  fed  in  this  manner,  carded 
G 


122  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

occasionally,  and  kept  quite  clean  standing  on  their  manure 
for  four  months. 

These  feeding  floors,  as  described,  stretch  through  the 
whole  length  of  the  barn.  A  feeding-car  passes  through 
two  wings,  and,  bj  having  a  turn-table,  may  pass  through 
any  wing.  Feed  may  be  dropped  through  a  chute  on  the 
side  of  the  upper  floor  into  the  car  wherever  placed  on  any 
feeding  floor.  This  form  of  barn  gives  every  facility  for  any 
style  of  feeding,  cutting  and  cooking  the  food,  or  cutting 
and  grinding — a  large  engine,  placed  in  the  center,  would 
do  all  the  work ;  and  this  also  offers  the  best  facility  for 
soiling  this  thousand  head  in  summer. 

Sheep  Bajins. 

There  have  been  a  variety  of  forms  in  sheep  barns  rec- 
ommended— some  contending  that  sheep  should  never  be 
wintered  in  inclosed  barns,  that  sheds  are  a  sufficient  shel- 
ter, and  all  the  confinement  that  sheep  can  stand  with 
health. 

But  in  all  the  Northern  and  Eastern  States  the  best 
shepherds  have  discarded  the  open  shed  as  a  protection 
in  the  cold  season,  and  now  advise  barns  that  can  be 
closed  completely  or  as  securely  as  barns  for  cattle,  wlien 
the  weather  requires  it — not  forgetting  ample  means  of 
ventilation. 

Sheep  require  roomy  stables,  but  they  are  as  much  bene- 
fited as  other  stock  by  a  nearly  uniform  temperature.  It  is 
therefore  profitable  to  provide  warm  and  well-ventilated 
stables,  basements,  not  sunk  in  the  earth,  preferable.  Per- 
liaps  the  style  of  long  barn,  Ave  have  described,  is  as  well 
adapted  to  sheep  as  to  cattle.  Sheep  require  ample  room 
to  store  fodder,  and  this  long  barn,  40  feet  wide,  with  a 
basement  walled  in  with  concrete,  would  furnish  a  stable 
of  remarkably  even  temperature,  and  affording  every  de- 
sired facility  for  ventilation.     The  concrete  wall  furnishes 


SHEEP  BARNS.  123 

a  much  drier  basement  than  a  mason-laid  stone  wall,  which 
often  conducts  moisture  and  frost  to  the  inside,  whilst  the 
basement  with  concrete  wall  is  as  dry  as  if  wooden-walled. 

The  advantage  of  the  new  style  long  barn  is  that  it  may 
be  extended  at  any  time  without  any  change  in  its  con- 
struction. Such  a  barn  40  x  40  would  accommodate  150 
merinos  or  100  long-wools.  This  basement,  with  a  double 
rack  and  trough  through  the  center,  dividing  it  into  two 
apartments,  will  furnish  room  for  75  on  each  side,  or  if 
40  X  60  feet,  would  provide  room  for  225  merinos  or  150 
Cotswold  or  Leicesters. 

This  barn,  with  its  floor  lengthwise,  furnishes  a  very  con- 
venient means,  by  its  door-trap  through  the  floor,  of  drop- 
ping the  fodder  into  the  double  rack  below.  Here  is  also 
abundant  room  for  storing  a  full  supply  of  fodder,  and  of 
grain  or  other  feed  for  fattening  purposes.  The  floor  over  a 
sheep  stable  should  be  dust  tight,  keeping  the  wool  free 
from  dust;  and  one  of  the  best  ways  to  make  a  floor  dust- 
tight  is  to  place  pine  lath  under  the  joints  of  the  boarding 
across  the  joists,  and  a  piece  on  the  joists  under  each  board. 
The  lath  laps  on  each  board  three-quarters  of  an  inch, 
and  thus  makes  a  tighter  floor  than  one  that  is  matched. 
The  lath  is  nailed  to  the  under  side  of  the  floor  between 
the  joists. 

DOUBLE    SHEEP    RACK. 

The  form  of  rack  from  which  to  feed  sheep  is  somewhat 
important.  It  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  save  all  the 
fodder,  and  to  prevent  the  hay-seed  and  dust  from  getting 
into  the  wool.  The  author  has  constructed  a  double  rack 
and  trough  which  is  represented  in  fig.  15.  This  is  an  end 
view  and  will  readily  be  understood. 

Scantling  5  feet  8  inches  long  are  placed  about  30  inches 
apart. 

a.     Plank  \%  x  8  inches  for  the  bottom  of  the  trough. 

h.     Sliding   board,   reaching   down   and    nailed    to   the 


124  FEEDI]!^G   ANIMALS. 

bottom  board  of  the  trough,  about  six  inches  from  the 
outside. 

c.  Rack  slats  IH  x  2  inches  nailed  to  the  sliding  board 
6  inches  from  the  bottom,  rising  3  feet  from  the  bottom  of 
the  rack,  and  nailed  at  the  top  to  a  scantling  {d)  2  x  2K 
inches.  The  rack  slats  lean  from  the  trough  4  inches  at 
top  to  prevent  hay-seed  from  falling  upon  the  head,  and 
are  only  3  inches  apart. 

(t  A  scantling  2  x  2K  inches  to  which  the  rack  slats  are 
nailed  at  the  top. 

e.    Front  side  of  the  trough  8  inches  wide. 


Fig.    15.— END  VIEW  OF  DOUBLE  RACK  AND  TROUGH. 

/.  Bar  across  the  top  of  the  trough  to  the  rack  slat  to 
divide  the  trough  and  prevent  sheep  from  getting  into  it. 
These  bars  are  placed  across  at  every  third  slat,  and  may  be 
placed  at  every  second  slat,  if  a  narrower  division  is  found 
best. 

Both  sides  of  this  rack  are  precisely  alike.  It  will  be 
seen  that  nothing  can  be  wasted,  for  all  short  bits  of  fod- 
der and  seed  will  slide  between  the  slats  into  the  trough,  a 
little  meal  or  bran  placed  upon  this  refuse  will  cause  it  all 
to  be  eaten.     This  rack  furnishes  a  place  for  feeding  grain 


SHEEP   SHELTER.  125 

as  well  as  hay.  This  double  rack  placed  through  the 
center  of  the  basement  above  described,  will  divide  it  into 
two  apartments,  and  receive  its  fodder  from  the  opening  in 
the  floor  above. 

If  this  rack  is  to  be  used  against  a  wall  it  can  be  made 
single  by  dividing  it  perpendicularly  in  the  middle.  It  can 
be  made  single  as  well  as  double.  If  it  is  to  be  used  as  a 
short  rack,  and  the  end  not  placed  against  a  wall,  then 
the  end  must  be  boarded  or  slatted. 

This  rack  would  be  equally  convenient  in  the  yard, 
where  it  is  appropriate  to  feed  in  the  open  yard.  The 
trough  in  the  illustration  is  supposed  to  be  12  inches  wide 
and  8  inches  deep,  but  it  may  be  made  wider  if  desired. 
We  think  this  rack  and  trough  will  be  found  to  prevent 
tlie  sheep,  as  far  as  possible,  from  rubbing  off  their  wool 
in  eating  their  food,  and  that  it  also  prevents  the  waste  of 
food,  and  besides  saves  labor  in  feeding  by  providing  for 
feeding  grain  and  coarse  fodder  together. 

On  the  Western  plains  very  little  attention  is  paid  to 
shelter  for  sheep.  Yet  we  think  even  there  a  temporary 
shelter  should  always  be  provided,  and  if  the  ranch  is  large, 
and  little,  if  any,  winter  fodder  is  provided,  there  should 
be  several  warm  sheep  corrals,  made  with  poles  and 
thatched  with  wild  grass  or  straw.  These  may  be  arranged 
so  as  to  protect  the  sheep  from  wind  and  snow-storms. 
Such  precaution  will  often  save  a  large  part  of  the  flock, 
and  always  bring  them  through  in  better  condition.  Tem- 
perature has  much  to  do  with  the  necessity  for  food.  Ex- 
posure to  hard  storms  makes  a  heavy  draft  upon  the  food 
to  keep  up  animal  heat,  and  if  food  is  short  the  heat  must 
come  from  the  store  of  fat  laid  up  in  the  body. 

The  need  of  shelter  is  less  in  the  South,  but  the  temper- 
ature there  often  falls  so  low  as  to  render  shelter  a  matter 
of  economy  to  the  mutton  and  wool-grower.  Shelter,  as  a 
means  of  preserving  animal  heat,  is  cheaper  than  food, 
even  in  the  South. 


126  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


CHAPTER  y. 

PRINCIPLES   OF   ALIMENTATION. 

The  true  and  complete  office  performed  by  the  food  in 
the  growth  and  development  of  our  domestic  animals  has 
been  quite  too  little  considered  by  many  even  of  our 
advanced  feeders.  Let  us  instance  intelligent  Short-horn 
breeders. 

Much  has  justly  been  written  in  praise  of  the  Short-horn 
as  the  highest  and  most  perfect  bovine  type  of  human  food; 
but,  we  fear  that  in  the  minds  of  many,  too  great  faith  is 
placed  upon  the  constitution  and  blood  of  the  animal,  and 
too  little  upon  the  process  by  which  this  perfected  type  has 
been  produced.  They  seem  to  think  that  this  perfected 
animal  has  power  to  change  the  elements  of  its  food,  and 
add  an  aroma  and  flavor  to  its  flesh  which  was  not  contained 
in  its  food.  At  the  meeting  of  the  National  Short-horn 
Breeders'  Convention,  at  Cincinnati,  a  learned  member,  in 
an  elaborate  paper,  proposed,  as  the  best  means  of  improving 
the  flavor  and  quality  of  the  flesh  of  each  breeding  animal, 
to  slaughter  some  of  its  offshoots — discarding  those  whose 
flesh  is  not  of  the  desired  quality,  and  he  made  no  suggestion 
of  the  necessity  of  appropriate  food  as  affecting  flavor;  but 
he  instanced  the  antelope  and  other  wild  animals  as  possess- 
ing the  same  flavor  of  flesh  to-day  as  a  thousand  years  ago; 
from  which  we  suppose  that  he  regarded  the  flavor  of  the 
flesh  as  dependent  entirely  upon  the  constitution  and  fixed 
character  of  the  animal,  and  not  upon  the  food.  But, 
what  would  be  the  effect  of  domesticating  the  antelope,  and 
changing  its  food  from  that  of  the  broad  range  and  great 


PRINCIPLES   OF   ALIMENTATION.  127 

Tariety  of  sweet  and  aromatic  herbs,  to  the  prepared  pas- 
ture of  a  few  simple  grasses,  and  the  allowance,  for  short 
periods,  of  one  or  two  of  our  cultivated  grains  ?  Would  it 
take  a  thousand  years,  or  any  considerable  fraction  of  it,  to 
change  the  flavor  of  its  flesh  ?  No  animal  has  the  power 
of  extracting  a  flavor  from  food  which  it  does  not  contain. 
The  animal  creates  nothing — simjoly  elaborates  and  appro- 
priates what  it  finds  in  its  food.  We  are  not  left  to  mere 
theory  upon  this  question.  Numerous  trials  in  domesticat- 
ing wild  species  are  on  record.  The  wild  turkey  and  wild 
goose  undergo  a  transformation  in  a  few  years  so  that  the 
flavor  of  the  flesh  can  scarcely  be  told  from  that  of  the 
domestic  variety,  while  high  feeding  has  increased  the  fat 
and  weight  of  the  bird.  The  domesticated  partridge  fol- 
lov>'s  the  same  law.  The  deer,  under  domestication,  loses 
the  peculiar  wild  flavor  of  its  flesh. 

In  England  large  numbers  of  deer  are  kept  in  the  parks. 
Mr.  Joseph  Harris,  writing  of  a  visit  he  made  to  England 
in  1879,  said:  ^*I  saw  thousands  of  deer  in  the  diff*erent 
parks.  But  they  have  abundance  of  rich  grass  in  the  sum- 
mer, and  during  winter  they  are  furnished  with  hay  when- 
ever necessary.  Now,  I  am  very  fond  of  venison  ;  and  so, 
on  our  return  home  on  the  steamer  Gallia,  one  day,  when 
we  had  a  saddle  of  venison  for  dinner,  I  ordered  some,  ex- 
pecting a  great  treat.  But  it  was  not  venison  at  all.  It  was 
cut  from  the  carcass  of  one  of  those  English  half-domesti- 
cated deer  that  run  in  the  parks  and  are  furnished  a  regu- 
lar supply  of  food.  But  it  was  not  what  we  call  venison 
in  this  country.  It  lacked  flavor — Avas  more  like  mutton. 
The  flesh  was  light  colored,  and  there  was  half  an  inch  or 
more  of  external  fat,  precisely  as  there  is  on  well-bred  and 
well-fed  sheep." 

This  is  a  demonstration  of  the  efiect  of  food.  The 
Cheviot  sheep  of  Northumberland  hills  and  Scottish  high- 
lands, feeding  upon  many  wild  grasses  and  aromatic  herbs. 


128  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

have  a  peculiar  flavor  of  flesh  which  recommends  tlieir 
mutton ;  and  the  "small  sheep  upon  the  Welsh  hills  possess 
a  great  reputation  for  flavor,  and  bring  a  higher  price  than 
the  sheep  of  the  lowlands.  But  a  change  made  for  a  few 
years  witli  each  also  changes  the  comparative  quality.  The 
Swiss  cow,  feeding  upon  her  high-flavored  native  grasses 
upon  the  Swiss  mountains,  yields  higher-flavored  milk, 
butter  and  cheese  than  the  same  cow  when  fed  upon  the 
lowlands. 

The  intelligent  dairyman  knows  that  the  quality  of  his 
milk  is  dependent  upon  the  food  provided  for  his  cows. 
He  does  not  expect  to  joroduce  rich  milk  from  straw,  what- 
ever may  be  the  strain  of  blood  in  his  cows.  The  finest 
Jersey  is  not  expected  to  produce  delicious  flavored  milk 
upon  leeks  and  garlic;  but  you  might  as  well  attempt  to 
breed  a  cow  that  would  give  as  delicious  flavored  milk 
upon  leeks,  cabbages,  onions  and  turnips  as  upon  the 
sweetest  June  grasses,  as  to  expect  to  succeed  in  breeding 
animals  the  flavor  of  whose  flesh  will  be  independent  of  the 
quality  of  their  food. 

It  is  quite  true  that  an  animal  of  fixed  characteristics 
will  select  and  appropriate  such  elements  in  its  food  as  its 
system  requires  for  the  reproduction  of  all  its  pecuHarities; 
but  the  animal  which  has  produced  nicely-marbled  and 
highly-flavored  flesh  under  circumstances  of  appropriate 
food  and  conditions,  cannot  long  continue  to  do  this  under 
changed  food  and  conditions. 

If  you  wish  to  imitate  the  flavor  of  the  wild  animal  you 
must  furnish  the  food  of  the  wild  animal. 

These  facts  are  dwelt  upon  to  show  the  folly  of  attempt- 
ing to  breed  an  animal  that  shall  be  independent  of  the 
quality  of  its  food.  If  you  find  offshoots  from  animals, 
both  male  and  female,  of  the  highest  possible  quality  of 
flesh,  it  will  be  well  to  breed  from  them,  because  "  like  pro- 
duces like,"  under  the  same  circumstances;  but  the  animal 


EARLY   MATURITY.  129 

is  always  dependent  upon  its  food  for  its  quality  of  flesh. 
Although  one  animal,  from  its  constitution,  has  greater 
power  of  utilizing  its  food  elements,  and  of  selecting  or 
rejecting  different  elements  than  other  animals  of  the  same 
species,  yet  it  cannot  elaborate  or  utilize  what  is  not  there. 

Early  Maturity. 

Having  found  that  the  animal  must  depend  primarily 
upon  its  aliment  for  growth  and  quality,  the  next  impor- 
tant consideration  is  how  this  aliment  should  be  given — 
whether  the  growth  should  be  slow  or  rapid — should  take 
the  longest  natural  period  required  by  a  .^anty  diet,  or  the 
shortest  possible  attainment  of  maturity  under  the  most 
judicious  and  skillful  feeding.  That  we  may  form  a  safe 
opinion  upon  this  question,  it  is  requisite  to  examine  some 
of  the  circumstances  attending  growth  and  maturity. 
While  the  animal  is  young  and  immature,  its  appetite, 
digestive  and  assimilative  functions  are  most  active;  and 
these  functions  g-row  less  and  less  active  after  maturity. 
After  the  period  of  perfect  development,  the  natural  habit 
of  the  animal  is  to  eat  and  digest  only  so  much  as  is  neces- 
sary to  supply  the  waste  of  its  tissues;  and,  consequently, 
its  weight  remains  nearly  stationary.  Another  most  im- 
portant point  is,  that  while  the  animal  is  young,  and  in  an 
active  stage  of  growth,  tlie  percentage  of  waste  in  its  sys- 
tem is  much  less  than  at  and  after  maturity.  The  food  of 
support,  or  what  is  necessary  to  supply  the  constant  waste 
of  the  system,  and  keep  the  animal  without  }oss,  has  accu- 
mulated to  a  large  item  at  maturity.  It  then  becomes  very 
clear,  that  the  interest  of  the  feeder  requires  thai  the  short- 
est possible  time  should  be  given  to  the  growth  of  an  ani- 
mal intended  for  food.  It  must  be  evident  that  in  careless 
and  unskillful  feeding  the  cost  of  simply  supplying  the 
waste  of  the  system  during  four  years'  feeding  of  steers 


130  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

will  be  as  great  as  to  produce  animals  of  the  same  weight 
at  24:  to  30  months ;  or,  in  other  words,  skillful  feeding  of 
young  animals  will  produce  twice  as  much  weight  at  24  as 
at  48  months,  on  the  same  food. 

"  But,"  say  some,  "  your  steer  cannot  be  mature  at  24 
months."  It  is  true  that  the  marks  of  full  development 
are  that  the  permanent  teeth  are  complete,  the  animal 
fully  grown,  and  all  its  physical  qualities  perfect.  The  ox 
]ierfects  its  teeth  at  four  to  five  years,  the  pig  at  two  to  two 
and  one-half  years.  These  times  of  dentition  occur  in  a 
state  of  nature,  when  the  animals  seek  their  own  scanty 
food,  or  under  the  care  of  a  slipshod  and  penurious  feeder. 
But  the  improved  breeds,  after  years  of  skillful  feeding, 
mature  in  from  one  to  two  and  one-half  years  earlier. 

M.  Eegnault,  at  a  cattle  fair  in  France,  in  1846,  found  a 
bull  only  two  years  old  that  had  all  his  permanent  teeth, 
and  all  the  points  of  development  and  maturity  in  perfec- 
tion ;  and  was  from  this  fact  led  to  make  investigation  of 
the  effect  of  careful  and  judicious  breeding  and  feeding  in 
hastening  the  maturity  of  animals.     He  says : 

^'Thanks  to  a  better  system  of  management  and  feeding 
of  cattle,  and  to  judicious  and  advantageous  crossings,  it  is 
certain  that  many  of  our  bovine  race  have  experienced  in 
their  form,  and  especially  in  their  precocious  development, 
nnmistakable  changes  for  the  better.  Whatever  may  be 
the  cause  of  this  remarkable  aptitude  of  certain  breeds  to 
acquire  their  growth  early,  it  is  evident  that  such  preco- 
cious development  cannot  be  confined  to  any  particular 
organs.  If  every  one  has  not  equally  participated  in  it,  at 
least  they  are  all  more  or  less  affected  by  it.  Above  all, 
the  digestive  system — the  part  called  in  to  play  an  impor- 
tant part  in  producing  such  an  aptitude  for  early  develop- 
ment, since  all  must  essentially  result  from  the  nature  and 
action  of  alimentation — must  be  one  of  the  first  to  undergo 
modifications." 


EARLY   MATURITY.  131 

Here,  it  appears,  that  thirty-six  years  ago  perfect  devel- 
opment was  found  at  two  years ;  and  the  French  scientist 
states  clearly  that  perfect  teeth  must,  as  a  general  rule,  be 
accompanied  with  full  development  of  all  the  parts.  So 
this  precocity,  when  it  becomes  established,  must  continue, 
under  favorable  circumstances,  as  a  permanent  character- 
istic of  the  animal.  A  study  of  the  facts  accompanying 
early  maturity  shows  that  the  animal  is  as  completely 
developed  in  all  its  parts  as  if  it  had  been  i^roduced,  under 
the  old  style  of  feeding  and  management,  at  the  end  of 
four  instead  of  two  years.  This  quite  disproves  the  objec- 
tion that  all  things  require  a  certain  amount  of  time  to 
perfect  their  construction  and  growth — that  whatever  is 
rapidly  produced  must  be  wanting  in  completeness  and 
perfection. 

Objectors  have  regarded  this  as  a  demonstration;  but  it 
is  merely  an  assumption.  All  the  processes  of  digestion 
and  assimilation  are  chemical  processes.  Combustion  is 
also  a  chemical  process ;  but  will  any  one  say  that  the  slow 
combustion  of  wood  by  rot  and  decay  in  the  open  air  is  any 
more  perfect  combustion  than  its  rapid  reduction  to  ashes 
by  fire  ? 

In  the  natural  state  the  animal  gathers  its  coarse,  fibrous 
food  by  long  and  toilsome  exertion;  and  its  small  percent- 
age of  nutriment  is  assimilated  into  the  tissues  of  its  body. 
But,  under  the  best  system  of  growing  animals,  the  food  is 
given  in  a  more  soluble  and  assimilable  condition,  and  in  as 
large  quantities  as  the  animal  can  digest,  which  can  all  be 
utilized  in  much  less  time.  Is  it  reasonable  then,  as  a 
matter  of  theory,  to  suppose  that  its  digestion  and  assimi- 
lation will  be  less  perfect  ? 

Our  present  excellent  varieties  of  wheat  are  supposed 
once  to  have  been  only  wild  grasses,  with  their  thin  and 
skinny  seeds.  Does  any  one  think  our  varieties  of  wheat 
have  degenerated  ? 


132  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

The  magnificent  pippin,  with  all  onr  improved  apples,  are 
supposed  to  have  sprung  from  the  wild  crab,  and  each  of 
these  improved  products  ripen  earlier  than  the  parent 
stock.  Are  they  less  perfect?  The  illustration  may  be 
carried  into  every  department  of  vegetable  and  animal 
growth 

It  thus  appearing  that  the  quality  of  the  flesh  must 
depend  upon  the  quality  of  the  food;  and  that  all  food 
produces  a  greater  profit  when  fed  to  young  than  mature 
animals — thus  showing  the  great  importance  of  early  ma- 
turity as  an  element  in  the  profit  of  growing  animals  for 
their  flesh. 

But  so  far  we  have  treated  the  subject  more  from  the 
standpoint  of  general  principle  and  theory  than  of  definite 
experiments,  which  appeal  more  forcibly  to  the  practical 
stock-feeder's  judgment,  and  are  more  likely  to  control  his 
action.     It  may  be  laid  down  as  an  axiom,  that 

Profitable  Feeding  must  be  done  Before  Maturity. 

Let  us  fortify  this  position  by  facts  and  experiments. 

As  we  have  seen,  the  digestive  and  assimilative  organs  of 
the  young  animal  are  in  the  greatest  activity;  and  thus  the 
stock-grower  must  take  advantage  of  this  period  to  pro- 
duce the  best  result  in  feeding.  Careful  experiments  show 
a  constant  increase  in  the  food  required  to  produce  a  pound 
of  live  weight,  as  the  animal  increases  in  size  and  age. 

Two  separate  experiments  were  tried  at  the  Michigan 
Agricultural  College  Farm,  in  1866-68.  In  the  former, 
three  pigs,  and  in  the  latter,  six  pigs  were  fed  upon  milk. 
The  pigs  were  from  four  to  six  weeks  old  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  experiment.  The  average  amount  of  milk  to 
produce  one  pound  of  live  weight,  was  :  first  week,  G.liQ 
pounds;  second  week,  7.75  pounds;  third  week,  12.28 
pounds;  fourth  week,  10.42  pounds.     The  professor  says 


PROFITABLE    FEEDING    BEFORE    MATURITY.  133 

the  cause  of  its  requiring  a  greater  amount  of  milk  the 
third  week  to  produce  a  pound  live  weight,  is  explained  by 
a  "  derangement  of  the  digestive  organs  during  this  week, 
as  shown  in  a  tendency  to  constipation."  He  also  remarks 
that  *'the  milk  to  produce  a  pound  live  weight  constantly 
increases." 

The  experiment  of  18G8  was  continued  afterward  for 
twenty  weeks,  upon  corn  meal.  This  experiment  was 
divided  into  five  periods  of  four  weeks  each.  The  amount 
of  corn  meal  required  to  make  one  pound  live  weight  is : 
first  period,  3.81  pounds;  second  period,  4.05  pounds; 
third  period,  4.22  pounds;  fourth  period,  5.24  pounds; 
fifth  period,  5.98  pounds. 

In  18G9  another  experiment  was  tried,  with  a  larger  num- 
ber of  pigs,  and  very  nearly  the  same  result  in  respect  to 
amount  of  meal  required  to  produce  one  pound  of  live 
weight,  and  substantially  the  same  increase  in  quantity  of 
feed  required  to  produce  one  pound  of  live  weight  as  the 
pigs  grow  larger  and  older. 

An  examination  of  the  meal  experiment  will  show  that 
in  the  fifth  period,  when  the  pigs  were  from  twenty-four  to 
twenty-eight  weeks  old,  it  took  75  per  cent,  more  of  meal  to 
make  a  pound  of  live  pork,  than  in  the  first  period,  when 
the  pigs  were  from  eight  to  twelve  weeks  old.  And  other 
experiments  have  shown  that  this  ratio  of  increase  in  food 
to  make  a  pound  live  weight,  substantially  goes  on  with 
the  age  and  weight  of  the  pig. 

In  1874  the  writer  tried  a  similar  experiment  with  ten 
calves  fed  upon  skim-milk.  The  calves  and  the  milk  fed 
were  weighed  and  calculated  for  each  week.  The  first 
week  it  required  11.02  pounds  of  milk  for  one  pound  of 
gain;  second  week,  12.18  pounds;  third  week,  13.17 
pounds;  fourth  week,  13.40  pounds;  fifth  week,  14.60 
pounds;  sixth  week,  15.05  pounds;  seventh  week,  16.71 
pounds;   eighth  week,  16.80  pounds;   ninth  week,  17.01 


134  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

pounds;   tenth   week,    16.08   pounds;   eleventh   week,  16 
pounds;  twelfth  week,  15.90  pounds. 

The  calves  gained  very  unequally,  individually,  owing  to 
the  constitution  of  each  calf.  Some  gained  much  more 
rapidly  than  others,  and  also  gained  quite  unequally  in  dif- 
ferent weeks;  but  the  result  stated  is  the  average  of  the 
ten.  We  regarded  this  experiment  as  very  instructive  ;  not 
only  as  showing  the  constant  increase  in  cost  of  putting  on 
a  pound  live  weight,  but  as  showing  the  value  of  skim 
milk  in  growing  calves.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
amount  of  milk  began  to  decrease  the  tenth  week.  This 
was  caused  by  the  calves  learning  to  eat  grass.  They 
increased  more  rapidly  after  learning  to  eat  grass,  when 
given  at  the  same  time  what  milk  they  would  drink.  It 
may  be  interesting  to  some  of  our  readers  to  state,  that  we 
find  skim  milk  worth  from  30  to  50  cents  per  100  pounds 
to  feed  calves  up  to  the  age  of  six  months.  By  the  aid  of 
milk,  with  abundance  of  grass,  they  may  be  made  to  weigh 
from  450  to  600  pounds  at  that  age ;  and  a  continuance  of 
this  liberal  feeding,  although  grain  is  substituted  for  milk, 
may  produce  yearlings  of  800  to  1,000  pounds  weight, 
instead  of  little  more  than  half  that  weight  under  a  scanty 
system  of  feeding.  The  experiments  of  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes, 
of  Rothamstead,  England,  also  prove  that  the  cost  of  put- 
ting on  weight  is  in  proportion  to  the  age  and  size  of  the 
animal.  This  fact  appears  very  plain  and  indisputable  to 
any  one  who  has  studied  it;  and  yet,  a  want  of  its  practi- 
cal adoption  among  stock-growers,  causes  a  loss  of  not  less 
than  $50,000,000  per  year  in  the  United  States.  And  this 
would  only  be  $11.50  per  head  for  the  4,341,824  head 
received  at  seven  principal  live  stock  markets  of  the 
country  in  1881.  A  close  examination  would  have  shown 
that  more  than  $50,000,000  in  food  had  been  thrown  away 
in  this  slow  and  unprofitable  growth.  We  do  not  mean 
that  all  of  them  had  been  grown  in  disregard  of  the  law  of 


STUDY  THE   NATURE   OF   ANIMALS.  135 

early  maturity ;  but  seven-tentlis  of  them  had,  no  doubt, 
suffered  from  ignorance  of  this  law  we  have  illustrated. 
And  next  we  should 

Study  the  Nature  of  the  A^nrAL  we  Feed. 

Stock-growers  often  neglect  this  injunction.  Forgetting 
the  natui'al  habit  of  the  animal,  and  anxious  to  make  the 
most  rapid  progress,  they  ply  it  with -too  concentrated  food, 
and  thus  cause  fever  and  other  diseases  in  the  system. 
Ruminating  animals  are  possessed  of  capacious  stomachs, 
calculated  to  manipulate  bulky  and  fibrous  food.  Nature 
never  intended  that  they  should  be  fed  upon  concentrated 
food  alone.  The  grains  grow  upon  stalks  having  twice  the 
weight  of  the  seeds,  and  animals  naturally  eat  both  seeds 
and  stalks  together.  The  ruminating  animal  requires  to 
eat  grain  with  the  coarse,  fibrous  stalk,  in  order  that  it 
sliould  go  to  the  first  stomach,  have  the  benefit  of  the 
macerating  process  of  the  rumen,  and  be  raised,  remasti- 
cated  and  mixed  with  the  saliva.  Some  six  different  exper- 
iments have  proved  to  me  that  corn  meal,  shelled  corn,  rje, 
oats  and  other  fine  feed  do  not,  to  any  material  extent,  go 
to  the  first  stomach  when  fed  to  cattle  alone.  One  or  two 
experiments  by  others  have  seemed  to  contradict  these; 
but  we  have  only  to  refer  the  Western  feeder  of  corn  in  the 
ear  to  the  droppings  of  his  cattle,  to  prove  most  conclu- 
sively that  the  corn  does  not  go  to  the  first  stomach.  For, 
if  the  corn  descended  into  the  rumen,  and  was  raised  and 
remasticated,  how  could  the  large  proportion  of  kernels 
found  whole  in  the  droppings  escape  un])roken  ?  We  have 
seen  them  so  thick  over  droppings  that  there  was  hardly 
an  inch  space  between  them.  This  must  be  considered 
not  only  a  wasteful  way  of  feeding  grain,  but  injurious  to 
the  health  of  the  cattle  so  fed.  But  in  many  parts  of  the 
Eastern  States,  quite  as  little  knowledge  of  the  nature  of 
the  ruminant  is  shown,  by  feeding  fine  corn  meal  alone. 


136  FEEDING  ANIMALS. 

This,  being  moistened  with  saliva,  passes  to  the  third  and 
fourth  stomachs  in  the  solid  form  of  the  house-wife's 
dough.  The  gastric  juice  cannot  penetrate  and  circulate 
through  this;  and,  consequently,  the  meal  is  often  found 
in  the  manure,  very  little  changed.  Some  respectably- 
read  physiologists  will  inform  you  that  the  muscular  coat 
of  the  stomach  (see  page  49),  by  its  contraction,  gives  a 
gentle  motion  to  the  contents  of  the  stomach,  intermixing 
these  with  the  gastric  juice,  but  in  the  case  of  the  plastic 
corn-meal  dough,  this  muscular  action  could  only  succeed 
in  rolling  it  over,  but  could  not  break  it,  or  render  it 
porous  for  the  entrance  or  absorption  of  the  gastric  juice. 
But  if  this  meal  is  fed  with  cut  hay  or  straw,  so  that  both 
must  be  eaten  together,  the  bits  of  hay  or  straw  separate 
\he  particles  of  meal,  so  that  the  gastric  juice  can  circulate 
through  the  mass  as  water  does  through  a  sponge.  When 
thus  fed,  the  meal  goes  with  the  cut  hay  to  the  rumen ;  is 
there  softened,  raised  and  remasticated.  The  Western 
feeder  may  save  much  of  this  loss  of  feeding  corn  in  the 
ear,  by  running  his  unhusked  corn — stalks,  ears  and  all — 
through  a  straw-cutter,  cutting  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in 
length,  and  then  feeding  all  together.  This  will  cause  all 
to  be  remasticated,  and  the  corn  very  fairly  digested. 

We  have  practised  this  mode  of  feeding  as  an  experi- 
ment, and  found  no  corn  to  pass  in  the  droppings  un- 
broken. It  would  effect  a  saving  to  Western  feeders  of  at 
least  20  per  cent,  over  their  present  mode  of  feeding  in 
shock.  This  point  will  be  further  discussed  in  its  proper 
place. 

Violence  is  also  done  to  the  nature  of  the  horse  when  he 
is  fed  upon  grain  alone.  We  have  seen  a  horse  that  so  well 
understood  his  own  wants  that,  when  fed  ground  grain, 
would  take  a  mouthful  of  meal  and  then  a  mouthful  of 
hay,  and  mix  them  together  himself  while  eating.  This 
horse  understood  animal  physiology  better  than  his  master. 


IMPROPER    FEEDING.  137 

Improper  feeding  of  grain  is  ii  most  fruitful  source  of  dis- 
ease among  horses. 

But  no  class  of  animals  is  so  much  abused  from  a  want 
of  proper  understanding  of  their  nature  as  swine.  The 
fact  that  they  are  grass-eating  animals  as  much  as  the  ox 
or  the  horse,  seems  to  be  ignored  entirely  by  the  largest 
class  of  pig-feeders.  Pigs  are  put  upon  corn  at  weaning 
age,  and  kept  npon  it  until  slaughtered,  if  cholera  does  not 
cut  them  off  in  advance.  The  pig  needs  for  health  a  little 
grass  or  clover  hay  mixed  with  the  grain  diet,  as  much  as 
other  grass-eating  animals.  We  have  tested  pigs  upon 
meal  and  grass,  and,  at  the  same  time,  others  upon  meal 
alone,  in  summer,  and  upon  meal  and  nicely-cured  clover 
hay,  softened  with  boiling  water,  in  winter,  and  have 
alwa3's  found  from  25  to  4U  per  cent,  in  favor  of  the  mix- 
ture of  grass  or  clover.  But  this  subject  will  be  further 
discussed  under  its  proper  head. 

We  have  seen  how  very  important  in  the  economy  of 
feeding  is  the  element  of  time,  and  that  the  '*  storing 
system,"  or  keeping  animals  at  a  standstill  for  the  purpose 
of  feeding  at  some  future  period,  is  always  attended  with  a 
great  loss  of  food.  Let  us  now  attempt  to  give  some  prac- 
tical suggestions  on 

HoAv  TO  Feed  Youxg  An"imals. 

As  the  reader  has  seen,  we  believe  much  in  the  teachings 
of  Nature,  and  that  a  feeder  can  never  mistake  when  he 
follows  her  as  closely  as  circumstances  will  permit.  If 
then  we  take  the  four  great  classes  of  farm  stock,  cattle, 
horses,  sheep  and  swine,  we  find  that  Nature  furnishes  for 
their  early  growth  a  very  perfect  food — milk.  She  pro- 
vides, in  this  elixir  for  young  life,  every  element  required 
to  build  the  bones  and  extend  the  frame — to  grow  the 
muscles,  tissues  and  nerves — to  lubricate  the  joints,  cush- 
ion or  pad  with  soft  suet  the  exposed  parts  oif  the  frame, 


138 


FEEDING    ANIMALS. 


and  to  round  out  into  lines  of  beauty  and  harmony  the 
whole  animal ;  and  if  we  .vould  study  the  open  secrets 
of  Nature  in  her  dealings  with  the  young  animal,  we  must 
look  into  the  combination  of  elements  in  milk.  The  fol- 
lowing is  an  average  of  the  composition  of  the  milk  of  the 
cow,  mare  and  ewe: 


Cow. 

Mare. 

Ewe. 

Caseine,  or  flesh-formers 

Milk-sugar,  \  ^"«^  <*^  respiration  and  fat    | 

Salts  or  ash 

Water 

4.05 

3.  HO 

4.55 

.<iO 

87.00 

3.40 

2.50 

3.52 

..53 

90.05 

4.50 

4.20 

5.(X) 

.68 

&5.62 

100.00     1     100.00 

100.00 

It  will  be  observed  that  each  of  these  analyses  shows 
•food  rich  in  nitrogen,  or  muscle-forming  nutriment.  The 
calf  receives  food  in  the  nutritive  proportion  of  one  of 
nitrogenous  to  3.37  of  carbonaceous  elements.  Liebig 
says  : 

**The  young  animal  receives,  in  the  form  of  caseine 
(cheese),  the  chief  constituent  of  the  mother's  blood.  To 
convert  caseine  into  blood,  no  foreign  substance  is  required, 
and  in  the  conversion  of  the  mother's  blood  into  caseine  no 
elements  of  the  constituents  of  the  blood  have  been  sepa- 
rated. When  chemically  examined,  caseine  is  found  to 
contain  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  earth  of  bones,  and 
that  in  a  very  soluble  form,  capable  of  reaching  every  part 
of  the  body." 

This  shows  clearly  the  great  office  performed  by  caseine 
in  the  growth  of  the  young  animal.  It  furnishes  the 
nitrogen  in  the  formation  of  the  muscles,  nerves,  brain, 
skin,  hair,  hoofs  and  horns,  and  furnishes  it  in  so  soluble  a 
form  that  it  can  reach  every  part  of  the  body.  J.  F.  W. 
Johnston  gives  two  analyses  of  the  ash  in  1,000  pounds  of 
milk; 


FEEDING   YOUNG   ANIMALS.  139 

I.  n. 

'  Phosphate  of  lime 2.31  3.44 

Phosphate  of  magnesia 0.42  0.64 

Phosphate  of  iron 0.07  0.07 

Chloride  of  potassium 1.44  1.83 

Chloride  of  sodium 0.24  0.34 

Free  soda 0.42  0.45 

4.90        t).77 

Here  we  find  that  something  over  one-half  of  the  ash  of 
milk  is  composed  of  phosphate  of  lime  and  magnesia, 
which  accounts  for  the  rapid  growth  of  the  calf  in  frame 
when  full-fed  upon  milk.  Here  is  found  every  mineral 
constituent  required  for  every  purpose  in  the  living 
organism.  Phosphate  of  lime  is  found  in  the  muscles, 
skin,  hair,  hoofs  and  horns,  as  well  as  in  the  bones.  The 
sugar  of  milk  is  admirably  adapted  as  fuel  in  keeping  up 
animal  heat;  and  this  is  often  illustrated  in  the  ability  of  the 
calf  to  withstand  cold,  frequently  showing  that  it  feels  cold 
less  than  its  mother.  Then  the  oil  of  the  milk  furnishes  fat 
ready  formed  for  use,  and  needs  only  to  be  appropriated  by 
tlie  young  animal  to  be  changed  into  animal  fat.  Thus  milk 
is  a  perfect  food,  possessing  every  element  required  to  build 
up  the  animal  body.  But  the  young  animal  uses  milk  only 
for  a  limited  time,  when  other  food  must  be  substituted  for 
it.  Tlie  choice  of  this  food,  which  is  to  replace  the  milk, 
requires  some  thought  and  skill,  and  the  time  when  this 
substitution  is  to  take  place  is  an  important  element  in 
determining  the  choice.  A  moment's  reflection  will  show 
the  great  impropriety  of  substituting  food  for  the  young 
animal  very  different  in  its  elements  from  milk,  its  natural 
food.  Whatever  food,  then,  is  to  be  used,  besides  milk, 
for  the  calf,  colt,  lamb  or  pig,  should  be  chosen  because  it 
possesses  the  important  elements  in  common  with  milk, 
and  in  nearly  a  like  proportion.  The  young  animal  must 
not  suffer  a  check  in  its  growth  when  the  change  takes 
place,  if  the  greatest  profit  is  to  be  realized  from  it.  In 
order  that  we  may  decide  upon  the  best  foods  to  be  given  in 


140 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


lieu  of  milk,  let  iis  examiae  the  composition  of  most  of  our 
cereal  grains  and  some  by-products  that  may  be  used  for 
that  purpose.  The  following  analyses  of  grains,  and  par- 
tial products  of  grains,  represent  a  fair  average  of  their 
constituents : 


Digestible 

(0 

1 

Nutrients. 

o: 

1 

6 

H 

o 
c 

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14.4 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.4 
14.0 
14,8 

83.6 
83.7 
83.1 
82.7 
83.5 
83.0 
83.2 

13.0 
11.0 
9.5 
12.0 
10.0 
14.5 
22.4 

67.6 
69.2 
66.6 
55.7 
68.0 
62.1 
52.3 

3.0 
3.5 
7.0 
9.3 
5.5 
6.4 
9.2 

1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
6.0 
7.0 
3,0 
2  5 

2.0 
2.0 
2  6 
3.0 
2.1 
3.0 
2.5 

11.7 
9.9 
8.0 
9.0 
8.4 
9  5 

20.2 

64.3 
65.4 
58.9 
43.3 
60.6 
45.0 
54.4 

1.2 
1.6 

1:1 

4.8 
2.6 
1.7 

5  8 

Rye        

7  0 

Biirley               

7  9 

Oats  

fi  0 

Indinn  corn 

8  6 

Millet 

5  4 

Peas 

2.9 

14  5 

82.0 

25.5 

45.5 

11.5 

2.0 

3.5 

2;j.o 

50.2 

1.4 

2.2 

Flax-seed 

12. 3 

82.7 

20.5 

55.0 

7.2 

37.0 

5.0 

17.2 

18.9 

35.2 

4.9 

Oil-cake 

11.5 

80.0 

28.3 

41.3 

11.0 

10.0 

7.9 

24. S 

27.5 

8.9 

2.0 

Wheat-bran 

13  1 

81.8 

16.0 

48.0 

17.8 

3.8 

5.1 

12.6 

42.7 

2.6 

3.9 

Rye-bran 

Middlings 

12  5 

83.0 

14.5 

53.5 

15.0 

3.5 

4.5 

12.2 

46.2 

3.6 

4.5 

12.5 

83.0 

13.9 

63.5 

1     4.8 

3.3 

3.0 

10.8 

54,0 

a.9 

5.7 

The  above  table  will  give  the  reader  a  good  idea  of  the 
composition  of  most  of  the  foods  that  may  be  selected  to 
feed  young  animals,  in  lieu  of  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the 
milk.  These  grains  are,  of  course,  given  ground  into  meal. 
But  if  we  examine  the  table  with  a  view  of  comparing  the 
composition  of  each  with  that  of  milk,  we  shall  find  most 
of  them  deficient  in  albuminoids,  or  muscle-forming  mat- 
ter. It  will  be  remembered  that  the  nitrogenous  element 
of  cow's  milk  is  nearly  one-third  of  the  whole  dry  matter, 
or  one  to  two  of  the  carbonaceous  (oil  and  sugar  of  milk); 
and  that  in  the  milk  of  the  mare  and  the  ewe,  the  nitro- 
genous is  a  little  more  than  one-third  of  the  dry  matter. 

But  this  is  simply  comparing  the  absolute  weight  of  the 
two  classes  of  elements  in  food,  and  not  fixing  the  nutritive 


FEEDING   YOUNG   ANIMALS.  141 

ratio.  As  we  have  seen  in  a  former  chapter,  these  two 
classes  of  eleraents  are  necessary  to  the  maintenance  of  ani- 
mal life.  The  nutritive  ratio  signifies  the  ratio  of  digesti- 
ble albuminoids  to  digestible  carbo-hydrates.  The  carbo- 
hydrates are  starch,  gum,  sugar,  etc.  Fat  or  oil  is  also  a 
carbo-hydrate,  but  it  is  estimated  as  having  a  heat-produc- 
ing and  nutritive  power  2.4  times  as  great  as  ordinary 
carbo-hydrates.  In  finding  the  nutritive  ratio  of  a  food, 
then,  the  digestible  fat,  multiplied  by  2.4,  is  added  to  the 
digestible  carbo-hydrates,  and  this  sum  divided  by  the 
digestible  albuminoids. 

If  we  take  the  above  analysis  of  cow's  milk,  as  an  exam- 
ple (milk  being  in  solution,  it  is  all  digestible),  fat  is  3.80, 
this  multiplied  by  2.4  gives  9.12,  and  this  added  to  the 
milk  sugar,  4.55,  makes  13.  G7  as  the  carbo-hydrates  of 
milk,  and  this  divided  by  the  caseine  or  albuminoids,  4.05 — 
the  result  is  3.37  as  the  nutritive  ratio  of  milk,  read  1 : 
3.37 — that  is,  milk  has  1  of  albuminoids  to  3.37  of  carbo- 
hydrates. 

The  above  table  gives  the  digestible  nutrients  and  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  each  of  the  foods  named.  It  will  be  seen, 
that  of  all  the  foods  in  the  table,  oats,  peas,  beans,  flax-seed, 
oil-cake,  wheat-bran,  rye-bran,  millet  and  middlings  come 
the  nearest  to  milk  in  relative  proportions  of  muscle- 
forming  and  heat  and  fat-producing  elements.  And  if  we 
examine,  also,  the  mineral  elements  in  these  different  foods 
which  build  up  the  frame,  we  shall  also  find  flax-seed,  oil- 
cake, peas,  beans,  oats  and  bran  the  richest  in  phosphate  of 
lime  and  magnesia,  and  the  other  mineral  elements  neces- 
sary in  the  animal  economy.  Indian  corn  has  only  2.1  pea- 
cent,  of  ash,  and  this  not  rich  in  phosphate  of  lime,  etc. 
It  has  less  of  mineral  constituents  required  by  the  growing 
animal  than  barley  or  oats — the  former  having  2.G  per  cent, 
and  the  latter  3  per  cent.  We  desire  to  direct  attention  to 
corn,  as  an  improper  food   to  be  given,  alone,  to  young 


142  FEEDIN^G   ANIMALS. 

animals.  We  have  seen  that  it  has  8.6  of  carbonaceous  to 
1  of  nitrogenous  food,  while  milk  has  only  3.37  of  carbona- 
ceous to  1  of  nitrogenous.  Corn  is  quite  too  heating  and 
fattening,  and  too  poor  in  muscle-forming  and  bone-build- 
ing food  to  be  given  alone  to  young  animals — in  fact,  it  is 
much  better  to  discard  it  altogether  in  feeding  animals 
under  six  months  old. 

Milk,  the  natural  food  of  the  young,  has  a  large  propor- 
tion of  oil,  which  prevents  constipation  and  thus  promotes 
health,  besides  its  most  important  office  of  lubricating 
the  joints,  padding  and  cushioning  the  muscles.  When 
skimmed  milk  is  substituted  for  full  milk  the  animal  is 
soon  found  to  suffer  from  constipation,  and  this  is  often 
alternated  with  diarrhea.  Here  the  skill  of  the  feeder  may 
restore  the  cream,  removed  as  a  delicacy  in  human  food,  by 
adding  a  cheaper  oil  to  replace  it  in  the  skimmed  milk. 
Our  table  shows  flax-seed  to  contain  37  per  cent,  of  oil,  and 
this  oil  is  found  to  be  very  digestible  and  agreeable  to  the 
animal  stomach.  A  little  flax-seed  boiled  to  a  jelly  and 
stirred  into  this  skimmed  milk  restores  it  so  nearly  to  its 
original  condition,  that  calves  thrive  and  fatten  upon  it 
most  satisfactorily.  The  oil  in  the  flax-seed  costs  but  a 
small  fraction  of  the  value  of  the  cream  removed.  This  is 
an  example  of  the  principle  of  mixing  foods  complemen- 
tary to  each  other.  Peas  and  beans  are  strong  in  albumi- 
noids and  bone-building  elements,  but  deficient  in  oil,  are 
therefore  constipating,  and  should  have  a  little  boiled  flax- 
seed mixed  with  the  ground  meal.  Wheat  middlings  are 
generally  preferable  to  bran  for  the  young,  because  contain- 
ing less  indigestible  woody  fibre,  it  is  less  irritating  to  the 
stomach.  The  feeder  should  study  the  composition  of 
foods,  and  learn  to  combine  those  of  different  qualities,  so 
as  to  make  a  well-balanced  ration.  This  skill  enables  him 
to  utilize  everything  grown  upon  the  farm,  and  thus  add  to 
his  profits. 


STOCK    FOODS,  143 


CHAPTER  VI. 

STOCK    FOODS. 

It  seems  proper  to  consider,  preliminarily,  the  different 
foods  which  may  profitably  be  used  by  the  stock-feeder 
in  the  widely-varying  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  found 
in  our  country,  stretching  over  twenty-five  degrees  of 
latitude  and  fifty-seven  degrees  of  longitude.  We  do  not 
profess  to  be  able  to  describe  all  foods  actually  used  over 
this  immense  territory,  but  we  have  endeavored  to  give 
as  many  of  those  foods,  decided  in  practice  to  be  valu- 
able, as  possible,  and  especially  all  those  that  have  been 
brought  to  the  chemical  test  of  analysis.  Many  new  plants 
are  constantly  coming  into  profitable  use  after  experiment, 
and  the  list  has  been  considerably  enlarged  during  the  last 
decade.  The  last  twenty  years  have  been  remarkably  fruit- 
ful in  chemical  researches,  the  laboratory  being  the  leader 
of  agricultural  progress,  especially  in  Germany.  The  Ger- 
mans have  studied  the  analysis  and  feeding-value  of  cattle 
foods  more  carefully,  perhaps,  than  the  agriculturists  of 
any  other  country.  Their  numerous  Experiment  Stations 
have  given  them  a  great  advantage  in  this  respect,  as  these 
have  joined  science  and  practice  together — worked  out  the 
actual  results  in  feeding  and  compared  them  with  the 
analysis.  These  experiments  have  not  been  carried  far 
enough  to  determine  food-values  with  absolute  accuracy, 
but  they  are  much  in  advance  of  our  previous  knowledge 
of  the  digestibility  of  foods.  They  have  attempted  to  de- 
termine the  money  value,  in  the  German  market,  of  the 


144:  FEEDING   ANIMALS 

nutritive  ingredients  in  some  of  the  most  important  stock 
foods  in  that  country.  Most  of  these  are  also  fed  in  this 
country,  and  their  figures,  although  not  determined  for 
this  country,  will,  at  least,  be  interesting  to  our  readers. 
They  figure  the  value  of  a  food  from  the  relative  propor- 
tion of  the  three  classes  of  digestible  matters  it  contains; 
that  is,  the  albuminoids,  carbo-hydrates  and  fat.  The 
Germans  base  the  value  of  a  food,  not  upon  the  actijal 
amount  of  albuminoids,  carbo-hydrates  and  fat  it  contains 
on  analysis,  but  on  the  amount  of  each,  digestible;  and 
this  is  det-ermined  mostly  by  feediug  experiments,  but 
partly  by  calculation.  It  is  considered  highly  important 
to  know  just  the  proportion  that  the  digestible  albumin- 
oids bear  to  the  digestible  carl)o-hydrates — and  this  pro- 
portion is  called  the  nutritive  ratio. 

As  we  have  seen  in  a  previous  chapter,  the  composition 
of  animal  bodies  and  vegetable  bodies  is  the  same.  Every 
element  in  animal  bodies  must  be  contained  in  the  food 
given.  The  albuminoids  make  the  l)lood  and  tissues — the 
carbo-hydrates  serve  to  keep  up  animal  heat,  aiid  the  sur- 
plus goes  to  lay  on  fat.  Animals  require  more  of  the  one 
or  the  other  according  to  age  and  condition — therefore  a 
knowledge  of  the  composition  of  the  different  foods  be- 
comes of  the  highest  importance  to  the  successful  feeder. 

The  investigations  in  Germany  have  stimulated  American 
chemists  to  the  analysis  of  American  cattle  foods,  and  within 
the  last  decade  very  many  careful  analyses  of  our  wild  and 
cultivated  grasses  and  leguminous  plants,  as  well  as  of  our 
grains  and  waste  products  of  their  manufacture,  have  been 
made. 

Our  Department  of  Agriculture  has  done  much  in  this 
field  during  tlie  last  few  years.  Yet  it  is  but  just  to  say 
that  the  Connecticut  Experiment  Station  lead  off  in  the 
effort  to  acquaint  our  farmers  with  the  German  work  in 
this  field. 


STOCK  FOODS.  145 

We  will  first  give  the  careful  work  of  our  American 
chemists  in  the  analysis  of  our  cattle  foods.  The  following 
table  is  the  work  of  our  painstaking  chemist  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Professor  Peter  Collier. 

In  the  investigation  of  our  wild  grasses  it  is  the  most 
extensive  work  that  has  been  performed  in  this  country. 
This  table  does  not  include  all  the  analyses  made  of  native 
grasses,  but  is  intended  to  include  all  those  of  much  value 
as  agricultural  plants.  Some  of  these  may  prove  of  less 
value  than  supposed,  and  others  left  out  may  prove  of  more 
value  than  now  believed. 

This  table  gives  an  interesting  investigation  into  the 
chemical  composition  of  grasses  at  diflPerent  stages  of 
growth,  and  will  be  important  as  a  reference  in  the  consid- 
eration of  the  proper  time  for  cutting  grasses  as  cattle 
food. 


146 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


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AN'ALYSIS   OF   GRASSES. 


147 


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148 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


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DESCRIPTION   OF   GRASSES.  149 

The  foregoing  table  of  analyses,  by  Prof.  Collier,  of  our 
wild  grasses,  including  many  considered  as  troublesome 
weeds,  is  a  most  valuable  contribution  to  the  chemistry  of 
cattle  foods,  and  a  few  years  more  of  equal  industry,  in  this 
section  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  will  leave  but 
few  of  our  known  fodder  plants  unanalyzed. 

The  great  diversity  of  our  soil  and  climate  will  often 
render  a  grass  valuable  in  one  section  which  is  found  of  no 
economical  value  in  another  locality.  Chemistry,  by  show- 
ing the  proportion  of  nutritive  constituents  in  a  grass, 
which  is  found  to  grow  good  crops  in  any  section  of 
country,  will  enable  any  one  to  determine  its  economic 
value  for  cultivation  in  that  locality.  Every  grass  must  be 
brought  to  a  practical  test  in  cultivation  before  its  value 
can  be  determined  for  any  locality,  but  a  knowledge  of  its 
chemical  analysis  will  give  an  experimenter  confidence  in 
the  probable  value  of  his  labor. 

A  large  number  of  the  grasses  in  this  table  seem  to  be 
specially  adapted  to  the  Southern  States.  We  shall  only 
glance  at  a  few  of  them : 

Desmodium — tick-seed,  beggar-ticks — is  a  deep-rooted 
leguminous  plant,  which  has  attracted  much  attention  in 
the  South  as  a  plant  that  may  take  the  place  of  clover,  in 
the  rotation,  on  soil  that  will  not  sustain  clover.  It 
takes  its  name  from  the  rough  seed-pods,  which  adhere  to 
clothing.  Its  analysis  shows  it  to  be  fully  equal,  in  the 
proportion  of  nitrogen  and  other  nutritive  constituents,  to 
clover.  The  reports  are  that  it  flourishes  even  on  the  sand 
barrens  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  It  is  found  excellent  as 
pasture  and  as  hay — having  an  effect  similar  to  clover  when 
plowed  under.     It  is  annual. 

Japan  Clover. — This  is  another  leguminous  forage 
plant,  lately  established  in  Southern  States,  and  sup- 
posed to  have  been  brought  in  tea-boxes  from  Japan  or 


150  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

China.  Said  not  to  flourish  north  of  36°;  but  grows 
strongly  on  soils  supposed  to  be  exhausted  by  cultivation, 
stands  the  severest  droughts,  its  long  tap  root  reaching 
moisture;  is  perennial  and  retains  its  foothold  without 
re-seeding,  is  much  relished  by  stock  as  pasture  and  as  hay. 
This  is  also  excellent  for  plowing  under,  but  having  less 
nitrogen  than  Dcsmodium. 

Mexican  Clover. — This  has  been  considered  a  trou Die- 
some  plant  in  cultivated  fields  in  Florida,  but  has  lately 
been  found  very  valuable  as  a  green  soiling  plant.  It 
grows  rapidly  and  is  very  succulent  and  relished  green  by 
all  stock.  It  is  grown  by  the  orange  planters  among  their 
groves  as  a  shade  and  mulch  in  the  hot  season,  cut  and  fed 
green  to  stock.  It  is  so  watery  as  to  be  difficult  of  curing 
into  hay.  The  reports  are  that  it  produces  much  more 
forage  than  clover,  growing  more  than  four  feet  high  and 
thick  set,  and  on  soil  too  poor  for  clover.  It  appears  to  be 
a  very  valuable  plant  where  it  succeeds,  and  is  likely  to 
grow  well  along  the  whole  seaboard  of  the  gulf.  It  is  a 
native  of  Mexico  and  South  America, 

Satin  Grass  (Muhlenberg ia  glomerata). — This  grows  in 
wet  meadows,  and  is  also  found  on  sandy  barrens  in  the 
Northern  and  Western  States.  Its  analysis  shows  it  to  be 
a  valuable  grass  if  it  can  be  grown  in  respectable  quantity. 
It  is  reported  from  Colorado  and  Kansas  as  an  excellent 
grass  for  hay.  Having  a  creeping  root,  it  must  produce  a 
good  strong  sward  for  pasture.  It  has  the  largest  propor- 
tion of  nitrogen  of  any  of  the  wild  grasses  analyzed.  It 
certainly  merits  a  thorough  test.  Another  variety  of  this, 
M.  Diffusa,  drop-seed  grass,  has  a  reputation  in  Kentucky, 
Tennessee  and  North  Carolina  as  a  pasture  grass. 

Shrader's  Grass  is  found  valuable  for  winter  grazing. 
It  grows  early  and  is  leafy,  producing  much  pasturage.  Its 
analysis  shows  it  very  nutritious. 


DESCRIPTION   OF   GRASSES.  151 

Bermuda  Grass  is  a  low,  perennial  creeping  grass,  with 
abundant  short  leaves  at  the  base,  but  a  slender,  nearly 
leafless  flower-stalk.  It  is  the  chief  reliance  for  pasture  in  the 
South.  Its  creeping  root  renders  it  difficult  to  eradicate  in 
cultivated  fields.  But,  thriving  in  arid,  barren  drift-sands 
of  the  seashore,  it  is  appreciated  and  prized  as  a  great 
resource.  It  has  the  capacity  to  withstand  great  heat  and 
drought,  being  green  and  fresh  when  blue  grass  is  dried 
up.  The  analysis  shows  it  to  be  very  nutritious.  It  is  not 
reproduced  from  seed,  but  sections  of  its  roots  covered 
shallow  with  the  plow. 

The  Crab  Grasses  (Panicum  sangicinale,  P.  filliforme, 
P.  j^roliferum,  P.  divaricatum,  Eleusina  Inclica,  etc.)  are 
all  found  to  thrive  in  the  southern  climate  and  to  assist 
greatly  in  pasturage ;  and  it  will  be  seen  by  their  analyses 
that  they  are  well  adapted  to  produce  growth  and  flesh 
upon  animals. 

Texas  Millet  {Panicum  Texanum),  is  an  annual  grass, 
growing  two  to  four  feet  high,  very  leafy,  grows  best  in  the 
hottest  part  of  the  season,  and  reported  to  make  most  ex- 
cellent hay.  It  is  said  in  Texas  to  produce  a  larger  crop 
than  millet,   and  to  be  well  liked  by  all  stock. 

Quack  Grass  {Triticum  i^epens),  considered  a  most 
troublesome  weed  and  a  pest  in  cultivated  fields,  is  seen  in 
analysis  to  be  a  very  nutritious  grass,  and,  in  hay,  cattle 
are  very  fond  of  it.  Its  nutritive  ratio  shows  it  to  be 
superior  to  timothy,  and  creeping  roots  attach  it  so  strongly 
to  the  soil  as  to  render  it  a  success  in  all  localities.  We 
have  seen  it  so  heavy  in  patches  as  to  yield  at  the  rate  of 
two  tons  per  acre.  In  a  permanent  pasture  it  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  grasses,  and  not  at  all  objectionable  in  a 
meadow.  It  is  impartial,  spreading  its  virtues  and  vices 
over  all  soils  and  climates. 


152  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

Wire  Gr^ss — English  Blue  Grass  (Poa  coinpressa). — 
This  grass  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  Poa  pratensis,  June 
grass,  but  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  latter  by  its 
shorter  and  flattened  stalk,  shorter  leaves,  shorter  and 
narrower  panicle,  with  fewer  branches.  It  has  a  remark- 
ably solid  stalk  and  produces  a  very  heavy  hay  for  its  bulk. 
It  does  not  produce  a  large  crop,  yielding,  even  on  rich 
land,  not  more  than  IVz  tons  per  acre;  but  it  has  a  value, 
per  weight,  15  per  cent,  more  than  timothy  hay.  It  never 
kills  out  by  freezing,  and  its  creeping  root  makes  it  very 
desirable  as  a  pasture  grass.  It  afl'ords  early  and  late 
pasturage.  Its  analysis  gives  it  a  high  position  in  the  scale 
of  nutritious  grasses. 

Gama  Grass. — This  is  a  tall  perennial  grass,  growing 
from  three  even  to  six  feet  high,  with  broad  leaves,  some- 
what like  Indian  corn.  It  is  found  native  at  the  South, 
from  the  mountains  to  the  coast.  When  cut  before  seed- 
heads  appear,  it  is  said  to  make  a  nutritious  hay.  It  starts 
immediately  after  cutting,  and  affords  three  or  four  green 
crops  in  a  season.  Cattle  and  horses  are  fond  of  it  cured 
into  hay.  The  roots  are  very  strong  and  run  deep,  which 
gives  it  vitality  to  stand  drought.  It  must  be  a  most 
valuable  grass  for  soiling. 

Grama  Grass  {Bouteloua  oligostachya). — This  name  is 
given  to  several  species  of  Bouteloua  found  on  the  great  plains 
on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  high 
table-lands  of  Texas.  They  are  valuable  grazing  grasses. 
They  grow  in  bunches  with  a  mass  of  short  leaves  at  the 
base.  Its  value  is  so  great  for  the  plains  that  efforts  have 
been  made  to  cultivate  it  on  the  moister  lands  of  the  sea- 
coast  without  success. 

We  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  to  some  other  of  these 
grasses  in  application  to  pasture,  meadow  and  soiling. 


ANALYSES  OF   FEEDING   STUFFS. 


153 


Average  Composition,  Digestibility  and  Money  Value  op  Feeding 
Stuffs,  as  given  by  Dr.  Wolf  for  Germany,  with  a  few  Ameri- 
can Analyses. 


Organic 

Dig 

ESTIBLE 

Substances,      j  Nutrients. 

6 

Kind  op  Fodder. 

4 

0 

J2      • 

r2 

u  be 

i 

8 

1 

0 

.s 

0) 

1 

1 

< 

< 

9 

s 

p 

1 

e 

a 

Xi 

< 

ii 
5-" 

1 

1 

as 
1 : 

HAV. 

% 

~% 

% 

% 

% 

Y 

% 

% 

Y 

$ 

Meadow  liay.  poor Il4.3 

5.0 

7.5 

;33.5 

38.2 

1.5 

3.4 

34.9'0.5 

10.6  0.48 

Meadow  hay,  better 

14.3 

5.4 

9.2 

29.2 

39.7 

2.0 

4.6 

36.4|0.6 

8.3  0.;  5 

Meadow  hay,  medium 

14.3 

6.2 

9.7 

26.3141.4 

2.5 

5.4 

41.0 

1.0 

8.00.64 

Meadow  hay,  very  good 

15.0 

7.0 

11.7 

21.9 

41  6 

2.8 

7.4 

41.7 

1.3 

6.10.75 

Meadow  hay,  extra 

16.0 

7.7|13.5 

19.3 

40.4 

3.0 

9.2 

42.8 

1.5 

5.1 

0  85 

Red  clover,  poor 

1.5.0 

5.1 

11.1 

28.9 

37.7:2.1 

5.7 

37.9 

1.0 

7.1 

0.59 

Red  clover,  medium 

IG.O 

5.3 

12.3 

26.0 

38  2  2.2 

7.0    38.1 

1.2 

5.9 

0.70 

Red  clover,  very  good 'Hi. 5 

6.0 

13.5 

24.037.1 

2.9 

8.5    38.2 

1.7 

5.0 

0.79 

Red  clover,  extra 

1«.5 

7.0 

15.3 

22.2 

35.8 

3.2 

10.7    37.6 

2.1 

4.00.89 

Wiiite  clover,  medium 

16.5 

6.0 

14.5 

25.6 

33.9 

3.5 

8.1    35.9 

2.0 

5.0 

0.76 

Clover  hay,  damaged  by  rain. .. 

14.5 

6.6 

15.8 

52.7 

23.4 

3.3 

.... 

.... 

Hay  of  pure  red  clover 

16.0 

5.6 

13.4 

25.4 

36.4 

3  2 



.... 

Lucerne,  medium 

16.0 

6.2 

14.4 

33.0  27. 912. 5j  9.4    28.3 

i!6 

■3!3 

0.71 

Lucerne,  very  good 

16.5 

6.8116.0 

26.631.6|2.5'l2.3  |31.4 

1.0 

2.8 

0.86 

Swedish  clover,  Alsike 

16.0 

6.0 

15.0 

27.0i32.7|3.3l  8.6  |34.8 

1  8 

4.6 

0.76 

Hop  clover 

16.7 

6.0 

14.6 

26.2.33.23.3:  9.2  I36.4 

2.0 

4.5 

0.81 

Trefoil 

16.7 

5.1 

12.2 

30.432.613.0!  6.2  ]34.9 

1.4 

6.2 

0.64 

Se 
Fo 

radella    

16.7 
16.7 

7.5 

13  5 

22. 035. 614. 7i  8.5  '36.2 
25.532.82.5'  9.4  132.5 

2.8 
1.5 

5.1 
3.9 

0.81 

dder  vetch,  medium 

8.3114.2 

0.77 

Fodder  vetch,  very  good 

16.7 

9.319.8 

23.4  28.5  2.3,15.1 

31.1 

1.4 

2.3 

0.99 

Peas,  i  n  bloom 

16.7 

7.0,14.3 

25.2  34.2  2.6;  9.4 

3:3.1 

1.6 

4.0 

0.77 

Lupine,  medium 

16.7 

4.6117.1 

28.530.912.2 

11.3 

37.3 

0.7 

3.4 

0.86 

Lupine,  very  good 

16.7 

4.1  23.2 

25.2  28.6  2.2 

17.2 

36.0 

0.7 

2.2 

1.10 

Fo 
Til 

dder  rye 

14.3 
14.3 

5.11  0  4 
4.5    9.7 

23  1  44.5  2  H 

6.6 
5.8 

44.3 

13 

7.2 
8.1 

0.72 

iiothy 

22.7  45.8 

3.0 

43.4,1.4 

1 

0.70 

'Early  meadow  grass   \Poa 

annua),  in  blossom 

14.3 

2.4  10.1 

25.9  47.2 

2.9 

6.0 

42.52.1 

7.9 

0.74 

Orchard  grass,  in  blossom.. 

14.3 

4.6  11.6 

28.9  40.7 

2.7 

6.9 

40.3  1.9 

6.5 

0.74 

Sweet-scented  vernal  grass. 

1 

in  blossom 

14.3 

5.4'  8.9 

31.2  40.2 

2.9 

5.9 

40.1 

8.1 

7.6 

0.70 

Blue  grass  {Poa  pratensis). 

1 

i 

in  blossom 

14.3 

5.1    8.9 

32.6  39.1 

2.3 

5.9 

40.0  1.6 

7.5 

0.68 

Sheep  fescue  (Festucaovina) 

3.6,  8.8 

25.1  57.1 

3.6 

8.8 

57.113.6 

6.9 

0.85 

J^ 

Red  top  {Agrostis  vulgaris), 

1 

1 

'£ 

in  blossom 

6.4 

6.8  10.3 

20.6  53.1 

2.6  10.3 

53.1  2.6 

5.4 

0.82 

< 

Meadow  foxtail  {Alopecunta 

1 

y-  . 

pratensis),  after  blossom. 

8.5 

7.4 

7.8 

23.1  49.6 

3.2 

7.8 

49.6,3.2 

6.7 

0.62 

4J 

Meadow  soft  grass  (Ilolcfius 

= 

lanatus),  very  young 

9.45 

9.0 

11.2 

16.849.3 

4.1 

11.2 

49.34.1 

4.8 

0.85 

? 

Meadow    soft     grass,    late 

1 

^_ 

bloom 

7.4 

7.6 

6.81 

23.1  .51.3 

3.6 

6.8 

51.313.6 

8.1 

0.73 

Fowl   meadow  grass    {Poa 

seratina) 

14.3 

4.4 

8.8 

21.7i49.0 

2.9 

7.5 

49.0  2.9 

6.9 

0.69 

Wire  grass  {Poa  compressa) 

14.3 

3.6 

6.2 

17.856.4 

2.4 

5.37 

56.4  2.4 

10.9 

0.66 

Wire  grass,  early  bloom  . , . 

5.2 

6.2 

12.7 

19.1  .52.7 

4.0 

10.2 

52.7 

4.0 

4.5 

0.83 

Foxtail    pigeon    grass    {Se- 

taria  glauea),  early  flow- 

.     ering 

5.0 

6.9 

8.6 

24  4  52.4 

2.5 

8.5 

52.4  2.5 

6.4 

0.70 

154  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

Average  Composition,  etc.,  of  Feeding  Stuffs— Continued. 


Kind  op  Fodder. 


f  Barnyard    grass    (Panicum 

S  I      crusgnlli) 

±p     Bermuda    grass    {Cynodon 

S  I     dactylon)  

■^  J  Quack  grass  (Triticum  re- 

-"  I     pens) 

■M  I  Gama      grass     (Tripsacum 

S        dactyloides) 

^-  I  Grama     grass     (Bouteloua 
«  t    oligosiachya) 

f  Timothy 

t^,  I  Timothy  and  red  top 

n  I  Timothy  and  blue  grass.    . . 
a  !  ilixed    grasses,     including 

.2  j      above  two 

I     Containing  clover 

.5  I  Low  meadow  hay 

[^  Sjilt  marsh  hay 

Italian  rye  grass 

English  rye  grass 

French  rye  grass 

Upland  grasses,  average 

H ungariati  grass 

Hungarian  grass, mature  samples 

iirown  hay  of  clover 

Brown  hay  of  grasses 

Brown  hay  of  maize 

Brown  hay  of  esparsette 


14.3 


14.3 

14.3 
13.5 
14.3 
14.3 

14  3 
14.3 
10.0 
10.7 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
13.4 
16. 7 
14.0 
14.3 
79.3 
52.5 


GRKEX  FODDER. 

Grass,  just  before  bloom 75.0 

Pasture  grass 80.0 

Rich  pasture  grass 78.2 

Italian  rye  grass    73.4 

English  rye  grass    70.0 

Timothy  grass 70.0 

Upland  grasses,  average 70.0 

Maize  fodder 84.0 

Green  Maize,  german    83. Oj 

Spurry,  Spergula  arvensis 79.2] 

White  mustard 87.4 

Parsnip  leaves 83. 1 

Sweet  clover 87.4 

Green  leaves,  of  trees 61 .1 

Fodder  rye 76.0 

Fodder  oats 81.0 

Sorghum  77.3 

Hungarian,  in  blossom 75.0 

Pasture  clover,  young  83.0 

Red  clover,  before  blossom 83.0 


Organic 
Stjbstances. 


Digestible 
Nutrients. 


7.8 
10.7 
11.4 


24.7 
20.2 


22.7 


46.4 
46.0 
48.2 
48.2 


3.9    6. 

5.5    7. 

5.4  10. 
5.8'  7. 
7.6l  6. 
7.811. 

6.5  10. 
9.911. 
5.8    9. 

5  7  10. 
5.8    5. 

8.2  16. 

6  31  8. 
1.5    1. 

3.3  9. 


3.0 
3.5 
4.5 
3.6 
3.6 
3.4 
3.4 
1.4 
1.8 
2.9 
3.3 
1.8 
2.9 
5.2 
3.3 
2.3 
2.5 
3.1 
4.6 
3.3 


19  4  49.5  2.7 
28.9  45. 8' 1.7 
26.5  44.1  2.0 
26.9  45.4  1.7 


7  44 

1  43 
S43 
941 
9  40 

2  36 
4  32 
7  39 
4  38 
142 
4  33 
4  45 
0  10 
4!16 


9  1  8 
02.3 
,8'2.2 
32.4 
63.2 
1:2.7 
6^2.7 
lj2.6 
52.2 
ill. 4 
3  2.4 
5  2.9 
1  1.1 
72  3 


% 

1.7   46.4  1.8 
9.16 
9.8 

48.212.0 


7.3 


7.1 
5.1 
5  6 
5.3 
6.1 


.0  13.1  0.8 
0  9.70.8 
0  10.1  1.0 
,1  12.1  1.0 
6  12.8  1.0 
0  16.3  1.1 
1 


13.4  1.0 

8.4,0.50 

9.30.5 

8.8;0.70 

»,  3.5    ... 

21  9.9I0.4 

6    3.50.4 

015.21.5 

9  10.40.8 

.51  8.3  0.5 

.7  11.7,0.7 

.5  10.9  0.7 

.8|  7.20.9 

.51  7.0.0.7 


2.0 
2.5 

3.4 
2  3 
1.8 
2.1 
1.9 


1.0 


1.9 
1.3 
1.6 
1.8 
3.6 


46.0,1.8 
48.23.0 


49.512.7 


41..^  1.4 
35.30.8 
33.1  0.8 
40.9  1.1 
41. ('0.9 


8.4 


0.2 


11.00.4 
8.9  0.2 
11.9,0.3 
11.8|0.3 
.4,0.6 
.4I0.5 


13.0  0.4  7.0  0. 
9.9  0.4  4.4  0.21 
10.9;0.6 
12.6  0.4 
12.20.4 
16.0  0.5 
14.2  0.5 


6.30.20 
7.20.15 
7.4  0.19 
7.00.20 
2.5,0.25 
3.8IO.I9 


ANA.LYSES  OF   FEEDING   STUFFS.  155 

Average  Composition,  etc.,  of  Feeding  Stvffs— Continued. 


Kind  of  Fodder. 


Red  clover,  in  full  blossom. ... 

White  clover,  iii  blossom 

Swedish  clover,  at  beginning  of 

blossom 

Esparsette 

Trefoil 

Hop  clover 

Seradella 

Incarnate  clover 

Medich,  Medicago  liipulina  — 

Lupine,  medium 

Lupine,  very  good 

Field    beans,    at    beginning    of 

blossom 

Fodder  vetch,  at  beginning  of 

blossom 

Foddor  peas,  in  blossom 

Buckwheat,  in  blossom 

(ireen  rape  

Fodder  cabbage 

White  cabbasie 

Cabbage  stems 

Potato  tops,  October 

Carrot  leaves 

Fodder  beet  leaves 

Rutabaga  leaves  * 

Kohl-rabi  leaves 

Artichoke  tops 

Fermented  hay  from  maize  . 

Fermented  hay  from  lupine | 

Fermented  hay  from  beet  leaves i 
Fermented  hay  from  potato  tops! 
Fermented  hay  from  red  clover' 


.4 
80.5 

85.0 
80.0 
81.5 
0 
80.0 
82.0 
0 
0 
85.0 

87.3 

82.0 
81.5 
85.0 
87.0 
84 

89.0 
82.0 
8.0 
82.2 
90.5 
88.4 
85.0 
80.0 
83.5 
79.9 
80.0 
77.0 
79.2 


Winter  wheat  straw 

Winter  spelt  straw 

Wintpr  rye  straw 

Winter  barley  straw      

Summer  barley 

Barley  straw,  with  clover 

Oat  straw.., 

Summer  grain  straws,  medium. 
Summer  grain  straws,  very  good 
Winter  grain  straws,  medium . . 
Winter  grain  straws,  very  good 

Fodder  vetch 

Pea 

Field  bean 

Straw  of  legumes,  medium 


Organic 
Substances. 


4.6;  3.0 


2.3 
3.0 
3  3 
3.5 
6  5 
4.0 
3.8 
6.9 
3.0 
4.5 
7.5 
6.5 
10.2 
8.1 


5.10.6 

8.20.6 

7.30.7 

8.20.8 

8.91.1 

6.7,0.70 

8.2,0.85 

5.7,0.4  I 

5.2  0.4  I 

5.10.3 


Digestible 
Nutrients. 


6.60.6 
7.60.6 
6.4'0.6 
3.710.6 
8.10  7 


5.9 
11.9 
9.7 
7.1 
4.0 
5.2 
8.2 
9.8 
8.9 
6.5 
9.0 
7.5 
6.4 


.0  36.9  1.2 
.5  30.8  1.45 
.0  :33.3  1 


.032... 

'.0J36.7 


5  1.4 
-1.4 


.UiJO.V    1.4 

.0,32.5  2.0 


5.36 
,7,36.4 
.732.9 
.0  34.9 
.836.7 
.0!29.0  X 
.0?/4.0  1 
.0  34.2  1 
.0132.4  1 


i!V 

2.5 

1.3 

.,4 

1.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 


0.8  11. 


0.8.35.6 
0.736.5 

0.8!36.5 
0.8  31.4 


l:      « 

5.7|0.17 

4.20.19 

3.20.17 
4.1  0  18 
5.50.15 
4.6  U. 18 


5.6 


0.18 


0.16 
0.20 


2.8  0.14 


.00.18 
.70.18 
.1  0.14 
.90.15 
.20.17 
.80.11 
00.15 
.0  0.13 
.80.18 
.70.10 
.9,0.12 
.30.17 


1.3 

40.6 

0.5 

3.3 

••^8.8 

0.9 

1.4 

40.1 

0.6 

1.4 

40.4 

0.7 

2.5 

36.9 

0.8 

0.8 

36.0 

04 

1,2 

34.3 

0.4 

3.4 

31.9 

0,5 

2.9 

33.4 

0.5 

5.0 

.35.2 

0.5 

3.8 

:«  5 

0.5 

0.4  45 
0.4 
0.4  46, 

0.4140, 
32. 


0.19 
0.13 
0.15 
0.17 
0.16 
0.26 


8  0.37 
0!0.37 
9:0.35 
5  0.33 
20.44 
4  0.. 53 
'.)  0.45 
00.45 
50.47 
3 '0.37 
4  0.37 
8  0.46 
0().44 
3  0.55 
710.48 


156  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

Average  CJomposition,  etc.,  of  Feeding  Stttff9— Continued. 


Eutd  or  Foddsb. 


Straw  of  legumes,  very  good 

Lentils 

Lupine  straw 

Seed  clover 

Rape 

Buckwheat  straw.. 
Com  stalks 


CHAFF  AND  HrTLLS. 

Wheat 

Kye ... 

Oats 

Barley 

Vetch 

Pea 

Bean 

Lupine 

Flax 

Rape 

White  clover 
Corn  cobs.... 


BOOTS  AND  TUBERS 

Potatoes 

Artichokes    

Fodder  beets 

Sugar  beets 

Rutabasas 

Rutabagas,  fermented 

Carrots  

Giant  carrots 

Turnips . 

Pari^nips 

Sweet  potato 

Yam,  American 

GRAINS  AND  FRUITS. 

Wheat 

Rye  

Winter  rye,  American  .... 

Barley 

Oats 

Maize 

Millet 

Golden  millet 

Buckwheat 

Rice,  hulled 

Peas 

Field  bean 

Vetch 


% 
16.0 
16.0 
16.0 
16  0 
16.0 
12.1 
15.0 


14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
15.0 
15.0 
15.0 
14.3 
11.2 
14.0 
11.5 
14.0 


Organic 
Substances. 


5  0 
0.0 
38  0 
81.5 
87.0 
84.6 
85.0 
87.0 
92  0 


69 
71  2 


14.4 
14.3 
8.7 
14.3 
14.3 
14  4 
14.0 
13.4 
14.0 
14.0 
14.3 
14.5 
14.3 


/o 
5.1  10.2 
6.5'l4.0 
4.1 
5.6 


S   9) 

O 


%    7o     /= 

34.5  33.21  1.0 

;3o.6'27.9|2.0 

5.9140.832.1   1.1 

4  42  0  25.0  2.0 


9.2:  4.3 

7.5 
10.0 
13.0 

8.0 

0.0 

5.5 

3.5 

7.2 

8.5 

7.9 

2.8 


4.0 
3.0 
8.5 
8.1 

10.5 
4.5 
2.7 
4.0 

18.3 
1.4 


1.7  13 

1.8  11 

1.8112. 
2.2  10 


3.1I25 

2.7127, 


40  0 
44.3 
40.0 


0 
43.5 
34.0 

0 

.0 

32.0 

a3.o 

37.0 
45  2 
40.6 
22.4 
37.8 


35.4; 1.0 
32.9  1.4 
36.7  1.0 


34.6 
29.9 
36.2 
38.2 
33.5 
36.9 
34.0 
39.0 
32.6 
31.3 
36.8 
42.6 


3.0 
3.5 
1.4 
7.1 
9.3 
5.5 
9.5 
11.6 
15.0 
2  2 
6.4 
9.4 
6.7 


Digestible 
kutrients. 


20.7  0.2 

15.5  0.2 
1  0.1 

15.4  0.1 
9.5j0.1 
8.80.1 

10.8i0.2 
9.6  0.2 
5.3  0.1 

10.2  0.2 

26.3  0.3 
25.2;  0.2 


4  1.5 

4  2.0 
9  '^.1 
9  2.5 
7:6.0 

1  6.5 

5  3.3 

6  4.0 

7  1.5 

2  0.4 
5  2.0 
9  1  6 

8  3.0 


1.4 
1.1 
1.6 
1.2 
4 
4.0 
5.1 
1.7 
0.7 
2.0  33 
10.7  34 
0.6  41 


34.6 
30.8 
41.6 
28.5 
35.0 
36.0 
37.0 


2.1 
2,0 
1.1 
1.0 
1.3 


21.8 
16.8 
10.0 
16.7 
10.6 


12.5 
10.8 
6.1 
11.2 
28.0 
25.9 


11.764.3 
9.9  65.4 

10.8170  3 
8.058.9 
9.0  43 


8.4 
9.5 
7.2 
6.8 
6  9 
20.2 


i 

60.6 
45  0 
47.0 
47.0 
72.7 
54  4 


23.0  50.2 

24.8148.2 


u\i 

7  20.55 
4.70.63 
19.40.48 
40.49 
25.90  39 
26.4  0  40 
34.4  0.39 


o 

«      o 


^  \> 


9.3 
17.0 
8.3 


9.3 
9.4 
5.8 
7.3 
31.9 
12.5 


0.37 
0.37 
0  39 
0.;i8 
0.54 
0.55 
0.53 
0.49 
0.38 
0.41 
0.84 
0.41 


0.29 
0.24 
0.14 
0.19 
0.15 


0.18 
0.16 
O.ll 
0.18 

0  ;30 

0.33 


1.13 

1.08 

1.16 

0.95 

0.98 

1  11 

0  93 

0  87 

.40.77 

70.96 

91.44 

.31.51 

2'l.63 


AN-A.LYSES  OF   FEEDING   STUFFS.  157 

Average  Composition,  etc.,  of  Feeding  Stuffs— Continued. 


Kind  op  Fodder. 


Lentil 

Lupine,  yellow 

Luiiine,  blue 

Cow  peas,  American 

Spurry 

Serriidella 

Flax-seed 

Rape-seed 

Hemp-seed 

Poppy-seed 

8uiirtower-seed 

Cotton-seed 

Palm-seed 

Chinese  oil  bean 

Acorns,  fresh 

Acorns,  half  dried 

Acorns,  shelled  and  dried 

Che-tiiuts,  fresh  .  .      

Horse-chestiiuts.with shell  fresh 
Horst'-cliestiuUs,  with  shell  dry 

Apples  and  pears- 

Cow  melons 

Pumpkins 

Squash,  fresh  American 

Squash  rind.  American 

Squash  seeds  and  stringy  parts 
American 

BY-PRODUCTS. 

Coarse  wheat  bran 

Wheat  middlings 

St.  Louis  ship  stuffs 

Rye  bran  

I'.iickwheat  bran 

Pea-meal  bran 

Pea  bran,  hulls 

Pea-meal 

Millet  bran 

Barley  bran 

Poppy-seed  cake 

Hemp-seed  cake 

Walnut  cake 

Olive  oil  cake 

Sunflower  cake 

Pumpkin-seedcake 

Sugar-beet  cake , 

Residue,  centrifugal  process  ., 

Clnrifying  refuse,  fresh 

'"larifying  refuse,  fermented  ., 


14 
13.3 
13. -2 
20.0 
8  7 
8.7 
12.3 
11.8 
12.2 
14.7 
K.O 


7.6 
6.9 
55.3 
37 
17.0 
49.2 
49 
IS. 8 
83.1 
91.4 
89.1 
S8.1 
82.0 

74.1 


% 

3.0 

3.8 

3.2 

3.1 

2.4 

3.4 

3.4 

3.9 

4. 

5.S\ 

3.0 

7.8 

1.8 

4.6 

1.0 

1.6 

2.0 

1.6 

1.2 

1.8 

0.4 

0.7 

1.0 

0.7 

1.2 

1.4 


Organic 

Substances. 


% 
23.8 
36.2 
24.8 
21.6 
18.0 
22  0 
20.5 
19.4 
16.3 
17  5| 
13  0 
22 
8.4 
38 
2.5 
3.5 
5.1 
4.3 
6.4 
6.9 
0.4 
1.2 
0.6 
0.9 
2.8 

5.3 


5.1  12 

2.3  11 
2.3  11 
2.9,12 
3.4117 
4.2,13 
3.01  8 
3  5,2:5 
7.5  6 
4.1114 
11.1  31 
7.8  29 

5.0  34 
6.8!  « 
8.1I37 

8.1  55. 


6.9 
13.8 
12.5 

4.7 

5.7 
21.1 

7.2 
10.3 
12  1 

6.1 
28. 5 
16.0 


% 
49.2 

8.0 
41.7 
49.3 
53.7 
37  5 
19.6 
12.1 
21.3 
15.4 
23.9 
15.4 


2.6 

4.!» 

4.6 

1.3 

11.5 

7.3 

37.0 

42.5 

33.6 

41.0 

23.6 

30.3 


Digestible 
Nutrients. 


21.4 
•■^4.4 


6 ; 0120. 8  49.2 


4.3 


1  31 
0  43 

u. 

8  19. 

9  11. 
8  24, 
6:  6. 
0.33. 
3    9. 


26.2  18.7 
34.8    1. 


46 

67.4 
41.3 
38.9 
65.3 
1.8 
5  2 
6.5 
9.1 
10.1 


59 
66 
66. 
67, 
46. 
37. 
30. 

5:54. 

614. 

4l45. 

5 '25 

7|23 

4 


:i3.6 
19.4 
16.2 
19.8 
17.2 
15.5 


51 
41.8 


54  2 

49.6 

54.6 

47.0 

18.9 

10.2 
12.2,16.2130.2 
17.2115.3:39.0 
10.424  6;21.2 
17.l!l.^.7|27.3 
8.0  31.2,48.2 
34.5  28.3  18.11 


3 
35.2 
-10.4 


as 
1: 

2.6  1.49 
1.62.00 
2.8  1.72 

2.7  1.33 

4.8  1.61 
3.2  1.60 

2.47 
2.55 
2.01 
2.50 
1.59 
4.62.08 
18.3  2  75 


'.2 


2.0,30.9 
2.841 
4.159.7 
3.4  35 


12.9 
5.6 
7.1 
9.0 

10.6 

10.3 


1.5 
2.2 


5  10.0  48.5  3 

9!  8.9:54.8  2 

8|  8.7(54  5  2 

2  10.6150  0,  2 

4  13.5  44.0  3 


5  9.245.8 
5  5.6,46.3 
52O.9I55.4 
5  4.5138  8 
1111.5:43.2 
2  26.8125.4 
5  •>0.9il7.4 
5  31.1,28.2 
2  3.0'32.8 
4  31.3  24.7 
4  50.0| 


1.8:24.6 
1.0115.7 
0.5  4.3 
0.8l  6.4 


2.1 
18.2 
17.0 
16.5 
11.5 


43.0 
6.2 
18.4 
15.8 
6.3 

6.4 


2.56 

0.43 
0.59 
0.85 
0.52 


0.13 
0.09 
0.08 
0.11 
0.20 

0.49 


1.01 
1.00 
0.97 
1  00 
1.15 
0.86 


5.6 

6.9 

7.0 

5.3 

4.1 

5.3 

9.2  0.74 

3.0jl.53 

10.l|0.66 
4  5: 1.04 
1  7  1.73 
1.5  1.30 
1.82.11 

16.5  0.91 
1.31.93 
0.72.74 

13.9  0.30 

16.00.19 
9.1:0. 06 
8.3'0.10 


158  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

Average  Composition,  etc.,  of  Feeding  Stufts— Continued. 


Kind  op  Fodder. 


Clarifying  refuse,  pressed  and 
fermented 

Sugar-beet  molasses 

Molasses  slump 

Potato  refuse  in  starch  manu- 
facturing   

Rye  refuse  in  starch  manufacMng 

Wheat  refuse  in  starch  manufg 

Corn  bran 

Corn  sugar,  or  starch  meal 

Corn  slump,  or  distillery  refuse 

Brewers'  grains 

Malt  sprouts 

Green  malt,  with  sprouts 

Ground  malt,  with  sprouts 

Wheat  meal 

Kice  meal 

Rice  bran,  hulls 

Rape  cake 

Rape  meal,  extracted 

Beech-nut  cake 

Beech  nuts,  shelled 

Almond  cake , 

Chinese  oil-bean  cake 

Palm-nut  cake 

Palm-nut  cake,  American 

Palm-nut  cake,  extracted 

Cocoanut  cake 

Barley  middlings 

Oat  bran 

Linseed  cake 

Linseed  meal,  extracted 

Cotton-seed  meal,  decorticated . 

Cotton-seedcake, undecorlicated 

SLAUGHTER-HOUSE  WASTE. 

Dried  blood 

Meat  scrap 

Ground  dried  flesh 

Fish  scrap 

Cows'  milk 

Skimmed  milk 

Buttermilk 

Condensed  milk 

Whey 

Cream 


86.3 
17.2 
92.0 


7.2; 
4.2, 
8.3 
12.5 
'87.5 
190. 0 
90.1 
21.5 
92.6 
62.0 


Organic 
Substances. 


0.9  1.5 
10.3  8.0 
1.6:  1.8 


0.4| 
0.8 
0.6 
2  3 

O.ll 

0.4 
O.3I 


1. 
5. 
6.725, 
1.71  6. 
2.31  4. 
3.0  13. 

10.6  10. 

12.0  6 
7.1'31 
7.9  33 

5.2  18 

7.7  37, 

4.3  41 
5.2  40 
4.2  16 
4.0  13 
4.0  18 
5.2  20 
6.211 
3.7|  7, 

8.2  32 

7.3  33 

5.8  41 

6.4  23 


3.1 


7.9 
64.5 
4.6 


2.0  11. 
2.7  18. 

3.4  15. 
2.561. 
3.4;18. 
1.0  5. 
3.913. 
9.345. 
4.3  38, 

8.7  69 

4.8  63. 
1.1147. 

25.1  44. 
11.0  29. 
13.4  34. 
23.928. 

5.5  29. 
8.920. 
5.5  27. 

17.4  41. 
18.S41. 

20.2  43. 
14  2  38. 

14.3  52. 
19.357. 

4,  7.3  31. 
2I  8.8  38. 
51  3.1  24. 
6!'>2.0  30. 


0.3 


Digestible 
Nutrients. 


11.0 
64.5 
4.6 


63  0 

47.3 

64.4 

49.6 

3.2 

3.5 

3.0 

10.2 

1.0 

2.7 


0.1 
1.5 
2.2 
4.0 
2.0 
1.0, 
1.51 
1.1  20. 

1.5  5 
2.3  7, 
3.3  10 
9.9  8. 
3.3    4, 

9.6  2.5. 
3.0  26 
8.3  13. 
7.5  31 

15.2  37 
1|  7.5  36 
0  10.0  16 
0  14.8:12 
5I  3.3  17 
5  12.5  18 
9  3.6  9 
9  2.3|  5 
5  11.6  27 
7  2.3  27 
4118.033 
5    6.1117 


13.7 
18.1 
15.1 
55.0 
19.3 
5.4 
11.3 
43.7 
36.9 
ti7.2 
54.8 
47.2 
42.8 
23.8 
27.2 
22.2 
25.5 
23,0 
29.4 
55.4 
56.2 
60.4 
47  4 
47.0 
49 
6  27.0 
8  33.9 
2117  6 
5  14.9 


.4  42.2 
.145.0 
.5  64.1 
.5  44.6 
.6  3.2 
.7  3  5 
.0'  3.0 
.9  10.2 
.6  1.0 
.8  2.7 
I 


5.0 
5.0 
5.4 
52. 
5. 


0.1 
1.2 
1.8 
3.6 
1.8 
0.8 
1.2 
O.i) 
1.2 
1.8 
2.9 
8.8 
2.3 

2^4 
6.6 
6.S 

13 
6.8 
9.5 

14.0 
3.1 

11.2 
3.2 
2.0 

10.4 
2.1 

16.2 
5.5 


0.18 
0.92 
0.12 


0.16 
0.44 
0.37 
0  92 
0.39 
0.15 
0.36 
1..33 
0.60 
1.00 
1.08 
1.16 
0.66 
1.66 

3  1  51 
8  1.08 

4  1.90 
6  2.44 

2.15 


1.61 


1.44 

1.69 

0|0.93 

0.77 


1.89 
1.61 
2.30 
1.14 


5.7  0.3  2.08 
2.0  0.1  2.03 
6.0  0.2  3.04 
8.6  0.5|2.30 
3.61  4. 40. .34 
0.7|  1.90.23 
1.0    2.6^0.22 

12. 9i  8.3|1.48 
0.6'  6.60.11 

31.8,30.5  1.54 


food  tables.  159 

Comments  on  the  Tables. 

In  the  last  set  of  the  foregoing  tables  it  is  easy  to  com- 
pare the  value  of  every  food  given  with  average  meadow 
hay — the  value  of  which  is  figured  at  64  cents  for  100  lbs., 
and  the  value  of  each  food  figured  on  the  same  basis  will 
show  t\ye  comparison  above  or  below  meadow  hay. 

Dr.  Wolff  estimates  the  value  of  a  food  in  Germany  on 
the  basis  of  4M  cents  for  each  pound  of  digestible  albu- 
minoids, and  the  same  per  pound  for  digestible  fat,  and  .9 
cent  per  pound  for  the  digestible  carbo-hydrates.  These 
tables  represent  nearly  all  the  important  cattle  foods,  ex- 
cept a  few  grasses  which  have  not  been  analyzed.  A  care- 
ful study  of  these  tables  will  give  the  reader  a  pretty  cor- 
rect knowledge  of  the  constituents  in  our  cattle  foods,  of 
what  is  digestible  and  indigestible.  The  nutritive  ratio,  it 
will  be  seen,  differs  very  much  in  some  classes  of  foods, 
depending  upon  the  condition.  For  example,  the  poorest 
meadow  hay  has  only  1  of  albuminoids  to  10.6  of  carbo- 
hydrates, whilst  the  best  meadow  hay  has  1  of  muscle- 
forming  food  to  5.1  of  heat  or  fat- forming  food.  This,  as 
will  be  seen  by  the  "  money-value,"  nearly  doubles  the 
feeding- value  of  meadow  hay.  Animals  kept  on  the  former 
would  only  be  able  to  keep  in  store  condition,  without  jier- 
ceptible  growth,  whilst  the  latter  would  keep  them  grow- 
ing steadily.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  nutritive  ratio  in 
oat-straw  is  1:29.9,  and  this  is  considered  our  best  straw. 
Kye-straw  is  still  poorer  in  digestible  albuminoids,  the  ratio 
being  ]:-46.9.  This  very  low  nutritive  ratio  is  occasioned 
by  the  fact  that  o.nly  26  per  cent,  of  the  albuminoids  in 
rye-straw  is  digestible,  whilst  an  average  of  48  per  cent, 
of  the  fibre  and  carbo-hydrates  is  digestible.  It  is  quite 
possible  that  Dr.  Wolff  has  placed  the  digestibility  of  the 
albuminoids  in  rye  and  oat-straw  quite  too  low.  The  sam- 
ples experimented  with  may  have  been  inferior.    But  those 


160  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

who  have  fed  rye-straw  know  that  neitlier  horses,  cattle  nor 
sheep  manifest  any  anxiety  to  eat  it.  Its  fibre  is  exceed- 
ingly tough,  making  better  paper  than  any  other  straw; 
and  this  is  undoubtedly  the  best  use  to  make  of  it,  when 
there  is  a  demand  at  paper-mills.  Yet  Pennsylvania  farm- 
ers of  the  olden  type,  who  were  wont  to  have  sleek,  well- 
rounded  team-horses,  kept  them  largely  upon  the  grain  of 
rye,  ground  into  meal  and  fed  upon  chopped  rye-straw.  It 
certainly  would  furnish  an  excellent  divisor  to  separate  the 
meal  and  carry  it  in  a  loose,  porous  condition  into  the 
stomach,  giving  the  gastric  juice  an  easy  circulation  and 
full  effect  in  digestion.  The  feeders  of  large  numbers  of 
street-railroad  horses,  in  New  York  City,  for  a  similar 
reason,  select  ripe  timothy  hay,  alleging  that  it  keeps  the 
animals  in  better  health  when  fed  largely  upon  grain. 

Wheat-straw  and  barley-straw,  contained  in  the  tables, 
have  a  composition,  chemically,  the  former  very  similar  to 
that  of  rye-straw — but  the  fibre  is  less  tough,  and  conse- 
quently a  larger  percentage  of  albuminoids  and  carbo- 
hydrates is  digestible — whilst  barley-straw  is  quite  equal  to 
oat-straw,  and  may  be  fed  to  good  advantage  in  connection 
with  grain. 

In  order  that  the  reader  may  make  an  easy  comparison 
between  some  of  tlie  most  common  kinds  of  food  for  cattle, 
we  will  give  the  chemical  composition,  digestibility, 
and  money-value,  according  to  the  German  standard,  for 
2,000  lbs. — or  an  American  ton — of  clover-liay,  meadow- 
hay,  corn-fodder,  oat-straw,  oil-cake,  wheat-bran,  corn-meal 
and  oats.  These  foods  are  used  more  in  the  United  States 
than  any  like  number  of  others.  They  are  also  comple- 
mentary to  each  other: 


TABLE    OF   VALUES. 


161 


i 

1 
1 

1 

6 

s 

§ 

Clover  Hat. 

15.3 

35.8? 

22. 2< 

3.2 

10.7 
37.6 
2.1 

214  lbs. 
752    " 
42    " 

$9.24 

Carbo-hydrates 

Crude  fibre    

Fat 

6.76 
1.82 

1 

1008    *' 

17.82 

AvEUAGE  Meadow  Hay. 

9.7 
41.6? 
21.9  J 

2.5 

5.4 

41.0 

1.0 

108    '' 

820    " 

20    " 

4.68 

Carbo-hydrates                       .                     ... 

Crude  fibre    

7.38 

Fat 

.87 

1 

948    " 

12.93 

Corn  Fodder. 
Albuminoids.  .       ..         ................... 

4.4 
37.9? 
25.0  i 

1.3 

3.2 

43.4 

1.0 

66    " 

868    " 

20    " 

2.86 

Carbo-hydrates —    

Crude  fibre 

Fat 

7.81 
.87 

954    " 

11  54 

Oat  Straw. 

4.0 
36.2? 
39.55 

2.0 

1.4 
40.1 
0.7 

28    '' 

802    •• 

14    '' 

1  21 

Carbo-hydrates 

Crude  fibre    

Fat 

7.21 
61 

1    844    " 

9.03 

Linseed  Oil  Cake. 

Albuminoids ,. 

Carbohydrates    

Fibre 

28.3 
32.3? 
10.05 
10.0 

23.77 

a5.l5 

9.0 

475    " 
7a3    " 
180    " 

19.00 
6.32 

Fat    

7.80 

1358    '' 

33.12 

Wheat  Bran. 
Albuminoids       

15.0 

52.2  ? 

10.15 

3.2 

12.6 

42.6 

2.6 

252    " 

852    " 

52    " 

10  92 

Carbo-hydrates ...   ... 

Fibre  

7.67 

Fat 

2.25 

1  1156    " 

20.84 

Corn  Meal. 
Albumi noids 

10.0 
62.1  ? 

5.5^ 

6.5 

8.4 
60.6 

4.8 

168    " 

1212    " 

96    '' 

7  28 

Carbo-hydrates  ........  

Crude  fibre 

10.90 

Fat 

4.16 

;  1476    " 

22.. 34 

Oats. 

12.0 
55.0? 

9.3  1 

6.5 

9.0 
43.0 
4.7 

180    " 
860    " 
94     " 

7.80 

Carbo-hydrates 

Crude  fibre 

Pat    

7.74 
4.07 

1 

1134     •' 

19.61 

162  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

These  comparisons  of  value  by  the  ton  of  these  very  dis- 
similar foods  is  very  instructive.  We  find  clover-hay  worth 
817.82  and  oat-straw  $9  per  ton;  but  it  cannot  be  inferred 
that  oat-straw  would  be  as  cheap  at  that  price  as  clover- 
hay  to  make  an  entire  food  for  cattle,  or  other  animals, 
because  clover-hay  is  a  well-balanced  food  for  cattle,  and 
oat-straw  is  only  a  partial  food,  containing  so  little  albu- 
minoids and  fat  that  cattle  would  starve  to  death  upon  it  if 
fed  long  enough.  The  muscles  and  nerves  could  not  be 
nourished  upon  it;  and  yet  a  good  article  of  oat-straw  may 
be  worth  the  price  named,  because  of  the  digestible  heat 
and  fat-formers  it  contains.  Now,  put  a  ton  of  the  best 
oat'Straw  with  a  ton  of  the  best  clover-hay,  and  you  have 
a  fairly-balanced  food.  It  compares  well  with  common 
meadow-hay.  The  digestible  albuminoids,  in  clover  10.7, 
in  straw  1.4,  making  the  two  added  12.1,  and  the  average 
per  cent,  of  the  mixture  is  6.05,  whilst  meadow-hay  is  only 
5.04.  The  digestible  carbo-hydrates  in  the  mixture  is 
about  39.0  to  41.0  in  hay,  and  the  fat  is  1.4  to  1.0  in 
meadow-hay.  The  parallel  is  very  close;  and  as  the  mix- 
ture has  slightly  more  albuminoids  and  fat,  it  may  be  con- 
sidered the  better  ration.  These  valuations  of  the  different 
elements  simply  mean  that  each  is  worth  the  relative  price 
named  when  fed  in  due  proportion  with  the  other  ele- 
ments. Oil-cake,  for  example,  is  as  far  from  being  a  bal- 
anced ration  as  oat-straw,  for  it  contains  as  much  too  large 
a  proportion  of  albuminoids  as  straw  too  small.  It  has 
also  oil  in  excess.  Like  straw,  it  must  be  fed  with  other 
foods.  If  400  lbs.  of  oil-cake  be  mixed  with  a  ton  of  oat- 
straw,  the  mixture  will  make  a  ration  equal  to  meadow- 
hay. 

Waste  Products. 

The  waste  products,  so  called,  from  different  manufac- 
tures are  accumulating  so  rapidly,  from  the  great  increase 
of  the  several  manufactures,  that  they  assume  a  degree  of 


FOOD  TABLES.  163 

importance  iii  beef,  mutton  or  wool-growing  much  greater 
than  heretofore.  These  waste  products  are  also  becoming 
quite  numerous,  and  the  location  of  these  manufacturing 
establishments  widely  distributed. 

CoKN-STARCH  Feed. — Grape-sugar  is  now  manufactured 
in  very  large  quantities  from  the  starch  of  Indian  corn, 
and  this  leaves  an  immense  quantity  of  refuse  sugar  or 
starch-meal,  which  must  be  utilized  as  food  for  animals.  It 
thus  becomes  important  to  know  its  value,  and  how  to  com- 
bine it  in  the  cattle  ration.  Some  establishments  run  2,000 
bushels  corn  per  day;  and  the  whole  amount  manufactured 
does  not  probably  fall  much  below  ten  millions  of  bushels 
per  year.  This  gives  a  large  amount  of  refuse — about 
600,000  tons,  including  water,  or  about  200,000  tons  of 
dry  matter.  If  this  were  relieved  of  its  water,  it  would 
bear  transportation.  Some  manufacturers  have  adopted 
the  plan  of  subjecting  it  to  pressure  to  expel  a  large  part 
of  the  water.  The  sample  given  in  the  analysis  contained 
72  per  cent,  of  water;  and  it  will  be  observed  that  the  pro- 
portion of  albuminoids  is  rather  larger  than  in  whole  corn. 
The  corn-sugar  waste  is  what  is  left  of  corn  after  extract- 
ing all  the  starch  that  can  be  done  by  the  present  process 
used,  which  is  converted  into  grape-sugar;  but  about  ten 
per  cent,  of  the  starch  remains  in  the  waste,  together  with 
all  the  albuminoids  not  soluble  in  cold  infusion.  This 
food,  if  taken  before  too  much  fermentation  has  set  in,  is 
quite  wholesome  for  cattle;  but  it  should  not  be  fed  alone. 
We  shall  give  rations  including  this  food. 

Brewers'  Grains. — This  waste  product  has  been  longer 
used,  and  is  generally  better  known  than  corn-sugar  meal; 
but  it  has  also  been  greatly  abused  by  allowing  it  to  attain 
a  high  state  of  fermentation  before  feeding.  This  has 
been  one  cause  of  bad  milk  resulting  from  its  use,  and 
another  that  it  has  been  fed  almost  without  other  food,  it 
being  but  a  partial  food  in  itself.     This  waste  is  more 


164  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

nitrogenous  than  corn  waste,  and  may  thus  be  properly 
mixed  with  poor  hay,  or  even  straw,  if  fed  fresh.  One 
great  fault  in  using  it  has  been  in  not  feeding  sufficient 
hay  with  it.  This  is  a  waste  from  barley,  and  has  a 
nutritive  ratio  of  one  to  three ;  and,  when  properly  com- 
bined in  the  ration,  is  good  food  for  either  milk  or  flesh. 
(See  rations  given  in  a  future  chapter.) 

Malt  Sprouts. — This  is  a  refuse  that  comes  from  malt 
in  drying — the  barley  having  sprouted,  these  fine  filaments 
break  off  in  handling,  after  drying.  These  sprouts  are 
very  nitrogenous,  having  a  nutritive  ratio  of  2.2,  and,  being 
quite  dry,  may  be  kept  any  length  of  time,  and  transported 
in  sacks.  This  waste  may  be  used  to  good  advantage  with 
some  food  poor  in  albuminoids. 

Meat  Scrap. — This  is  produced  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties from  some  pork-packing  establishments,  being  the  res- 
idue of  lard-making  ;  and,  when  thoroughly  dried,  may 
be  ground  fine,  and  is  sometimes  used  as  a  food  for  cattle, 
mixed  with  hay,  roots  and  corn-meal.  It  is  so  extremely 
rich  in  albuminoids,  that  only  a  small  proportion  can  be 
economically  used,  as  it  contains  twice  the  proportion  of 
nitrogen  as  cotton-seed  cake;  but  it  is  not  difficult  of 
digestion  in  small  quantity.  Meat  scrap  from  cattle  and 
sheep,  made  almost  wholly  from  the  intestines,  is  also  in 
the  market  in  a  sweet  condition,  and  has  been  fed  to  good 
account.  This  will  only  be  found  in  the  Northern  States 
bordering  on  the  Atlantic,  and,  at  present,  is  not  very 
important. 

Fish  Scrap. — In  working  up  fish  for  oil,  there  is  a  very 
large  quantity  of  scrap ;  and  if  the  process  is  condticted  in 
a  cleanly  way — as  is  the  case  at  some  of  the  works — the 
dry  product,  ground,  has  been  -proved  to  be  entirely  whole- 
some for  cattle,  mingled  with  other  food,  and  it  has  been 
found  to  aid  essentially  in  the  fattening  process.     There 


FOOD   TABLES.  165 

have  been  numerous  reports  of  the  good  effects  of  this 
scrap  in  fattening  pigs.  This  fish  scrap  seems  to  be  grow- 
ing into  favor  as  food ;  and  we  give  its  analysis  in  the  fore- 
going table.  We  there  give  the  analyses  of  these  waste 
products,  and  also  the  most  generally  used  of  other  foods. 
Feeders  should  familiarize  themselves  with  the  chemical 
qualities  of  these  different  foods.  It  will  be  understood 
that  the  money-value  is  merely  comparative. 

These  analyses  ai'e  principally  taken  from  the  Report 
of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  at  Middletown, 
Conn.,  many  of  them  the  work  of  the  station,  and  others 
taken  from  Dr.  Wolff,  of  Germany;  and  the  money- value 
is  calculated  from  the  German  formula — that  is,  the  digest- 
ible albuminoids  and  fats  are  estimated  at  4K  cents  per 
pound,  and  the  carbo-hydrates  at  A  cents  per  pound.  This 
is  a  much  higher  estimate  than  the  cost  of  these  foods  in 
most  places  in  this  country,  especially  west  of  New  York 
State.  But  the  table  of  values  is  intended  to  serve  only  the 
purpose  of  comparison,  and  they  are  no  doubt  approxi- 
mately accurate  in  that  respect. 

A  glance  at  the  analyses  of  hay  given  will  show  how 
rapidly  the  quality  of  both  timothy  and  clover  deteriorates 
after  fully  heading  out.  They  are  in  the  best  condition 
just  before  blossom.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  nutritive 
ratio  in  timothy,  just  when  headed  out,  is  1:10.4,  and,  when 
nearly  ripe,  1:15.3;  and  clover,  just  before  blossom,  is  1:0.1, 
and  when  nearly  ripe,  is  1:10.3.  This  shows  what  cattle- 
feeders  must  do  if  they  wish  to  retain  the  fattening  quality 
of  the  grasses  for  winter  feeding.  They  must  cut  at  or  be- 
fore blossom  for  cattle-feeding.  For  city-market  hay,  it 
may  be  cut  somewhat  later,  as  horse-car  companies  in 
cities  seek  for  a  solid  hay  to  mix  with  the  grain,  depend- 
ing almost  wholly  on  the- grain  for  nutriment.  If  they 
fully  understood  this  question  of  alimentation,  they  would 
likewise  require  the  grass  to  be  cut  earlier,  and  then  feed. 


166  "  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

not  more  hay,  but  less  grain.  Good,  bright,  early-cut 
straw  would  answer  about  as  well  with  the  ground  feed;  as 
the  hay  serves  principally  as  a  divisor  for  the  grain,  render- 
ing the  food  in  the  stomach  more  porous,  and  more  easily 
saturated  with  the  gastric  j  uice. 


SOILING.  167 


CHAPTER  VII. 

SOILIXG. 

Previous  to  entering  upon  the  discussion  of  the  feeding 
any  one  class  of  stock,  we  think  it  fitting  to  give  a  short 
explanation  of  that  mode  of  feeding  now  exciting  great 
interest  in  all  localities  of  dear  land — soiling.  The  author 
does  this  with  the  more  pleasure,  as  he  was  one  of  the  early 
and  earnest  advocates  of  this  mode  of  summer  feeding  on 
arable  land  worth  850  per  acre.  When  he  first  wrote  upon 
the  subject  of  cutting  green  food  in  summer  and  feeding  it 
to  animals  in  stall  or  rack  in  the  open  yard,  few  were  ready 
to  listen ;  it  Avas  deemed  a  Utopian  scheme  for  performing 
useless  labor.  But  a  rapid  change  has  been  coming  over 
cattle-feeders  during  the  last  twenty  years  upon  the  econ- 
omy of  soiling,  caused  mainly  by  the  necessity  for  dairy- 
men to  provide  green  food  for  their  cows  during  droughts 
or  short  pasture  from  other  causes.  In  feeding  an  acre  of 
good  fodder  corn,  millet,  clover,  etc.,  they  find  the  gain 
over  pasture  to  be  so  great  as  to  arrest  their  attention,  and 
set  them  to  thinking  upon  the  propriety  of  using  four 
acres  of  pasture  when  one  acre  soiled  would  furnish  more 
cattle  food.  And  besides,  many  occupants  of  small  farms 
have  not  the  space  for  pasturing  any  considerable  number 
of  stock,  and  turn  to  this  method  of  feeding,  which  enables 
them  to  keep  more  than  double  the  number  of  animals  on 
a  given  number  of  acres.  Josiah  Quincy,  who  practiced 
the  soiling  system  in  Massachusetts  as  early  as  1814,  in 
speaking  of  the  prevalent  opinion  of  his  time,  as  late  as 


168  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

J 859,  says:  ''A  mistaken  notion  that  a  considerable 
extent  of  land  is  requisite  to  enable  a  farmer  to  keep  many 
head  of  cattle,  led  to  a  most  wasteful  portion  of  it  being 
retained  for  the  sole  purpose  of  pasturage ;  and  thus,  com- 
pared with  its  inherent  productive  power,  was  made 
useless." 

Mr.  Quincy  was  very  desirous  of  showing  the  small 
farmer  how  he  might  compete  with  the  farmer  of  two  or 
more  times  his  number  of  acres,  by  adopting  this  more 
economical  system  of  feeding;  and  that  same  necessity 
exists  now,  twenty  years  later,  but  under  much  more 
encouraging  circumstances.  We  can  now  enter  upon  the 
task  of  showing  the  benefits  of  this  system  in  detail,  with 
the  assuring  knowledge  that  a  hundred  are  ready  to  listen 
where  one  gave  a  ready  ear  twenty  years  ago.  It  is  not 
anticipated  that  soiling  will  obtain,  except  in  a  very  partial 
way,  for  many  years  yet,  on  the  great  farms  of  the  West ; 
but  on  the  smaller  ones  there,  and  on  the  medium-sized 
farms  of  the  older  States,  soiling  is  likely  to  make  much 
progress  during  the  next  ten  to  twenty  years.  It  has  a 
most  important  bearing  on  the  meat  production  of  the 
future,  enabling  the  farmer  upon  high-priced  Eastern 
lands  to  compete  successfully  with  the  cheap  land  and 
grain  of  the  West  in  the  production  of  beef  and  mutton. 
The  improvements  of  the  last  few  years,  by  which  green 
food  can  cheaply  be  preserved  for  winter  use,  will  also  give 
the  thorough  soiling  system  an  immense  advantage  over 
the  out-door  system  of  feeding  in  the  West — giving  the 
stock  in  the  cold  Eastern  States  the  food  of  perpetual 
summer. 

As  we  aim  to  adapt  this  instruction  to  a  wide  extent  of 
country — many  desiring  to  understand  this  system  in  all 
its  phases — we  shall  discuss  its  several  economic  aspects, 
from  the  standpoint  of  twenty-five  years'  experience.  We 
will  take  these  up  in  their  order,  setting  forth  the  advant- 


SOILING.  169 

age  of  the  system,  and  then  try  to  give  full  weight  to  all 
the  objections  that  may  be  urged  against  it ;  for  no  subject 
is  more  than  half  discussed  when  we  stop  Avith  the  exami- 
nation of  one  side.  The  advantages  of  the  soiling  system 
are  : 

1.    SAYI^'G  Land. 

The  capacity  of  a  farm  to  carry  stock  must  soon  be 
regarded  as  its  measure  of  value,  and  that  even  in  a  grain 
region,  for  grain  is  an  assistance  and  not  an  obstacle  to 
stock-keeping ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  stock-feeding  is  an 
assistance  to  grain-raising.  France  and  Germany  each 
keeps  more  stock  and  raises  more  wheat  now  than  fifty 
years  ago.  These  countries  pasture  very  little,  keeping 
their  fields  in  crops,  and  these  are  fed  to  the  stock.  It  is 
well-known  to  all  farmers  that  an  acre  of  good  meadow 
grass,  properly  cured  into  hay,  will  furnish  food  for  a  cow 
or  steer  during  the  five  or  six  months  of  winter ;  and  on 
well-conducted  stock  farms,  under  the  old  system,  it  will 
be  found  that  three  to  four  acres  are  devoted  to  pasture 
one  cow  or  steer  through  the  warm  season.  Every  stock- 
feeder  also  knows  that  it  takes  more  food  to  keep  an  animal 
in  cold  than  warm  weather.  This  statement,  open  to  proof 
before  every  farmer's  eyes,  shows  the  great  waste  incident 
to  pasturing.  This  Avaste  of  food  is  caused — 1.  By  Avalking 
over  it;  2.  By  lying  upon  it;  3.  By  dunging  and  staling 
upon  it;  4.  By  breathing  upon  it — all  of  these  so  affect  the 
({uality  that  animals  will  not  eat  the  grass  thus  injured; 
5.  By  frequent  cropping,  preventing  its  rapid  growth,  and 
thus  reducing  the  amount  grown  upon  an  acre  in  a  season. 
An  examination  of  a  pasture  shows  the  effects  mentioned 
by  the  tufts  of  old,  uneaten  grass,  covering  a  large  part  of 
the  ground.  The  only  way  to  prevent  some  of  these  effects 
is  to  turn  a  large  number  of  cattle  for  a  few  hours  each  day 
into  a  comparatively  small  pasture,  and  not  allow  them  to 
remain  over  night.  If  there  are  cattle  enough  to  eat  off 
8 


170  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

all  the  grass  equally,  and  this  plan  is  continued  as  often  as 
the  grass  grows  sufficiently  to  afford  a  good  bite,  much  of 
the  loss  may  be  prevented.  But  under  the  best  system  of 
pasturage,  it  will  require  three  acres  of  pasture  to  furnish 
as  much  food  as  one  acre  of  good  meadow.  This,  then,  is 
equal  to  a  loss  of  two-tliirds  of  the  land  pastured,  if  we 
reckon  only  the  absolute  production.  And  if  (as  is  usual) 
one-third  of  the  farm  is  in  grain  and  meadow,  and  two- 
thirds  in  jDasture,  then  the  loss  on  66K  acres  of  pasture,  on 
a  hundred-acre  farm,  would  amount  to  nearly  45  acres;  or, 
in  other  words,  the  soiling  system,  on  arable  land,  would 
amount  to  a  saving  of  45  acres  in  100,  or  55  acres  under 
the  soiling  system  would  be  equal  to  100  under  the  pastur- 
ing system.  But  those  who  have  made  practical  compari- 
sons, both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  estimate  the  gain 
in  land  greater  than  this.  It  has  frequently  been  estimated 
that  50  acres,  used  under  the  soiling  system,  are  equal  to 
125  acres  under  the  pasturing  system. 

Hon.  Josiah  Quincy,  who  soiled  his  stock  for  18  years, 
says  :  "  One  acre  soiled  from  will  produce  at  least  as  much 
as  three  acres  pastured  in  the  usual  way;  and  there  is  no 
proposition  more  true  than  that  any  good  farmer  may 
maintain,  upon  30  acres  of  good  arable  land,  20  head  of 
cattle  the  year  round ;"  and  that  he  had  "  kept  20  head  on 
17  acres."  I.  D.  Powell,  of  Winchester  County,  New 
Jersey,  keeps  100  cows  on  100  acres. 

Let  us  test  this-  by  another  mode  of  comparison.  A  full 
crop  of  red  clover  will  weigh,  green,  20,000  lbs.  to  the  acre. 
This  would  feed,  in  its  green  state,  20  covrs,  of  800  to 
1,000  lbs.  weight,  ten  days,  or  one  cow  200  days.  This  acre 
would  furnish,  in  the  second  and  third  cuttings,  two-thirds 
as  much  more,  or  in  all,  food  for  one  cow  through  the  year. 
We  have  raised  clover  that  weighed  24,000  lbs.  at  a  single 
cutting,  per  acre.  Millet  or  Hungarian  grass  will  yield 
about  16,000  to  20,000  lbs.  per  acre,  and  furnish  food  for 


SOILING.  171 

one  cow  200  days.  A  good  crop  of  green  corn  will  weigh 
from  40,000  lbs.  to  60,000  lbs.,  and  furnish  food  for  a 
cow  for  333  to  500  days.  A  neighbor  of  the  author  meas- 
ured, accurately,  one  acre  of  field  corn  (grain  in  the  milk) 
and  fed  to  104  cows  (of  an  average  estimated  weight  of  900 
lbs.),  and  it  gave  full  feed  for  four  days,  or  feed  for  one  cow 
416  days.  These  cows  were  in  milk,  and  yielded  liberally 
on  this  ration. 

It  is  not  meant  that  green  corn  fodder  furnishes  a  com- 
plete ration  for  a  cow,  but  that  if  it  were  a  complete  food, 
the  quantity  would  be  sufficient  for  the  time  mentioned. 
The  last  experiment,  feediug  corn  when  the  ear  is  in  thick 
milk,  furnishes  a  ration  that  would  do  very  well  for  a 
month. 

It  will  be  seen  that  one  acre  in  these  crops  represents 
about  four  acres  under  the  ordinary  system,  or  three  acres 
of  pasture  and  one  acre  of  meadow.  And  there  are  many 
other  crops  producing  as  large  an  amount  of  cattle  food. 
As  the  fences  are  dispensed  with,  the  land  they  occupy  on 
a  300-acre  farm  is  at  least  five  acres— and  this,  in  good  con- 
dition for  soiling  crops,  would  feed  10  cows  through  the 
pasturing  season. 

2.     Savi:n-g   Fei^ces. 

This  is  an  item  that  should  be  carefully  estimated,  as  it 
is  one  of  the  heaviest  burdens  of  agriculture.  Fences  are 
needed  only  to  restrain  stock;  and  if  stock  is  not  pastured 
no  fences  are  needed,  except  for  yards,  and  perhaps  a  lane 
to  lead  the  cattle  to  the  wood  lot  for  simple  exercise.  Take 
the  fact  of  fencing  90  acres  into  four  fields,  for  pasturing 
30  cows  or  cattle.  These  fields  would  be  22>^  acres,  and 
would  require  720  rods  of  fence.  Now,  if  this  fence  cost 
one  dollar  per  rod,  and  if  we  suj^pose  it  to  last  20  years, 
then  the  decay  will  amount  to  5  per  cent,  per  year,  and  the 
labor  of  annual  repair  is  generally  estimated  at  5  per  cent. 


172  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

The  interest  on  original  cost  at  7  per  cent,  would  be  $50.40, 
and  the  10  per  cent,  for  decay  and  repair,  $72 ;  making 
$J  22.40  as  the  annual  expense  for  fencing  a  pasture  for  30 
head  of  cattle.  We  shall  see,  under  another  head,  that  this 
is  more  than  the  cost  of  labor  for  soiling  the  30  head  of 
stock.  Mr.  David  Williams  carefully  prepared  the  fence 
statistics  of  Walworth  County,  Wisconsin,  and  after  de- 
ducting for  waste  lands  in  ponds  and  lakes,  and  one-half  of 
the  division  fences,  he  makes  the  annual  cost  for  the  Avhole 
county  about  one  dollar  per  acre.  Mr.  Prince,  of  Maine, 
goes  into  an  elaborate  calculation  of  the  cost  of  fences  in 
that  State  in  1860,  and  the  result  does  not  vary  much  from 
an  annual  cost  of  one  dollar  per  acre.  The  late  Ezra 
Cornell  took  a  great  interest  in  studying  this  question,  and 
gave  his  views  in  an  address  before  the  State  Agricultural 
Society  of  New  York,  in  1862;  and  he  arrived  at  the  con- 
clusion that  the  average  cost  of  fencing  for  every  acre 
inclosed  in  that  State  is  one  dollar  per  annum.  If,  then, 
we  take  this  as  a  fair  estimate  in  the  older  States,  every 
acre  of  the  farm  must  be  charged  at  this  rate,  or  a  farm  of 
300  acres,  which  usually  keeps  about  60  head  of  cattle, 
would  pay  a  fence  tax  of  $300  in  labor  and  material.  The 
smaller  the  farm  and  the  smaller  the  lots,  the  greater  the 
cost  of  fences  per  acre. 

Mr.  Quincy  dispensed  with  1,600  rods  of  fence  on  his 
farm  when  he  adopted  soiling.  Mr.  F.  S.  Peer  says  his 
farm  required  1,000  rods  of  interior  fence,  and  the  interest 
on  its  cost  paid  for  the  labor  of  soiling  his  stock  after 
adopting  soiling. 

3.     Saying  Food. 

When  the  feeder  has  his  animals  and  their  food  entirely 
under  his  control,  he  becomes  culpable  for  any  waste  that 
may  occur.  Under  the  soiling  system,  food  may  be  given 
in  such  quantity  and  condition  as  to  be  wholly  eaten.     All 


SOILING.  173 

the  waste  of  the  pasture  caused  by  treading,  lying  upon, 
fouling,  etc.,  are  prevented.  A  very  important  saving  is 
also  found  in  the  use  of  all  the  green  food  that  grows  upon 
the  land,  such  as  plantain,  foul  grasses,  thistles,  daisies,  and 
nearly  everything  denominated  weeds,  when  cut  in  a  suc- 
culent state,  are  eaten,  and  are  wholesome.  The  fine  flavor 
of  the  flesh  of  the  antelope  and  wild  game,  comes  from 
aromatic  herbs  and  what  we  denominate  weeds.  Most,  if 
not  all  of  the  troublesome  wild  grasses  that  infest  our  cul- 
tivated fields  are  wholesome  food  for  cattle,  if  cut  at  the 
right  time;  and  soiling  does  this  and  saves  all.  Young 
Canada  thistles  and  other  tender  thistles,  are  eaten  by  cat- 
tle and  sheep,  and  preferred  by  horses  to  grass.  That  pes- 
tiferous weed,  the  white  daisy,  makes  excellent  food  if  cut 
before  blossom,  and  can  probably  be  exterminated  by  fre- 
quent cutting.  Soiling  offers  a  complete  remedy  for  weeds, 
as  nearly  all  are  killed  by  frequent  cuttings.  Judicious 
soiling  will  soon  make  clean  farms,  and  the  weeds  will  pay 
for  their  destruction. 

Another  source  of  saving  food,  in  soiling  cows  or  other 
cattle  intended  for  beef,  is  that  they  are  saved  the  exercise 
of  many  hours  per  day  in  foraging  over  large  fields  in 
search  of  food.  This  exercise  is  at  the  expenditure  of 
food,  and  amounts  to  much  more  than  is  generally  sup- 
posed. In  a  scanty  pasture  it  requires  constant  exertion 
for  10  to  IG  hours  per  day  for  cows  or  steers  to  get  food  to 
satisfy  their  wants.  The  food  required  to  supply  this 
force  is  saved  when  the  animals  get  all  the  food  they  want 
without  exercise.  But  it  must  be  understood  that  the 
soiling  system  does  not  prevent  such  exercise  as  is  neces- 
sary for  the  health  of  animals. 

Youatt  mentions  in  his  "Complete  Grazier,"  what  all 
who  have  practiced  the  soiling  system  know,  that  cattle 
will  eat  many  plants  with  avidity  if  given  them  in  the 
barn,  which  they  did  not  eat  when  growing  in  the  field. 


174  FEEDIi^G   Ai^IMALS. 

4.    Saving  Manure. 

One  important  object  of  stock-keeping  is  the  production 
of  manure  to  keep  up  the  fertility  of  the  land.  It  is  there- 
fore of  the  first  moment  that  the  manure  should  be  all 
saved.  In  pasture  more  than  half  of  the  value  of  the 
manure  is  lost.  It  is  evaporated  by  the  sun,  runs  into  the 
streams,  so  that  the  result  is  fortunate  if  half  remains  to 
enrich  the  soil.  Josiah  Quincy  found  that  his  cows  made, 
in  soiling,  one  load  of  manure  each  per  month,  which  he 
estimated  worth  81.50  per  load,  or  $9  per  coav  for  the  six 
soiling  months.  Prof.  J.  F.  W.  Johnston  states  that  in 
Flanders  the  liquid  and  solid  manure  from  a  cow  is  valued 
at  $20  per  year.  And  at  this  rate,  soiling  for  six  months 
would  save  85  per  cow,  if  only  half  her  manure  were 
counted.  Mr.  Quincy  says  the  saving  in  manure  will  pay 
all  the  labor  of  soiling.  It  is  easy  to  preserve  all  the 
manure  in  the  best  manner  under  this  system,  and  it  can 
be  applied  just  where  and  when  needed.  From  personal 
experience  of  more  than  twenty  years,  the  writer  regards 
the  saving  in  manure  as  worth  at  least  $6  per  cow  over 
that  of  pasture,  and  he  fully  agrees  with  Mr.  Quincy  that  it 
is  a  full  compensation  for  all  the  labor,  direct  and  indirect, 
in  soiling. 

5.  Effect  upon  Health  and  Condition. 
Almost  the  first  question  is,  '^  But  are  your  animals 
healthy?"  This  question  is  no  doubt  prompted  by  the 
supposition  that  strict  confinement  is  necessary.  Yet  soil- 
ing may  be  practiced  with  such  exercise  for  the  animal  as 
the  feeder  chooses.  And  as  animals  are  soiled  with  the 
same  food,  or  with  as  good  as  they  Avould  get  in  pasture,  why 
should  they  not  be  healthy  ?  Is  it  unhealthy  for  cows  or 
steers  lo  eat  sweet  clover  in  the  cool  stall  ?  We  have  had 
cows  soiled  for  fourteen  consecutive  years.  We  have  raised 
many  colts  under  this  system,  giving  them  a  runway  for 


SOILIJ^G.  175 


exercise,  and  they  were  always  quite  as  healthy  and  more 
thrifty  than  colts  on  pasture.     Soiling  furnishes  an  equal 
and  plentiful  diet,  pasturing  an  unequal  and  often  very 
scanty  diet.     In  soiling  the  feeder  has  the  condition  of  his 
animals  entirely  under  his  control,  because  he  can  supply 
such   quantity  of  food   as   he   chooses.     The   animal  will 
make  more  progress  on  the  same  quantity  and  quality  of 
food,  because  he  gets  it  without  unnecessary  exercise.     Ex- 
ercise requires  extra  food  to  compensate  for  the  waste  of 
muscle.     The  true  rule  should  be  to  let  an  animal,  at  cer- 
tain hours  of  the  day,  take  such  exercise  as  it  chooses,  to 
promote  health;  not  compel  it  to  work  sixteen  hours  to 
gain  a  living.     The  writer  tested  the  comparative  effect  of 
soiling  and  pasturing  on  the  same  class  of  animals,  by  put- 
ting five  two-year-old  steers   and   heifers,  weighing  4,500 
lbs.,  into  a  good  pasture,  while  five  of  the  same  age  and 
condition,  weighing  4,450  lbs.,  were  soiled,  with  exercise  in 
a  small  yard,  and,  at  the  end  of  four  months,  those  in  the 
pasture  had  gained  625  lbs.,  and  the  five  soiled  had  gained 
750  lbs.,  with  nothing  gave  green  soiling  food,  making  the 
two  lots  equal  in  kind  of  food.     The  pasture,  although 
good  and  abundant  when  the  experiment  began,  did  not 
continue   equally   good    throughout,   on   account  of   dry 
weather,  whilst  the  soiling  food  was  given  in  equal  abun- 
dance  to  the  end.     A  little   grain  would  probably  have 
added  200  lbs.  more  to  those  soiled,  and  no  doubt  also  to 
those  pastured.     Grain  is  usually  about  as  cheap  as  grass, 
and  quite  as  cheap  as  hay,  and  might  more  generally  be 
used  with  profit  as  an  addition  to  these  foods.     In  soiling 
it  is  easy  to  add  grain  when  the  grass  or  other  green  fodder 
becomes  tough  or  scanty,  and  thus  never  allow  an  abatement 
in  growth.     In  the  feeding  of  "baby  beef,"  mentioned  in 
the  next  chapter,  this  grain  ration  was  given  with  excellent 
efiect.     There  can  be  no  standing  still,  if  steers  are  to  gain 
two  lbs.  per  day  for  the  first  800  days.     The  German  and 


176  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

French  beef- growers  adopt  largely  a  strict  soiling  system, 
and  produce  a  higher  average  weight,  at  a  given  age,  than 
any  pasturin_g  people  has  attained. 

6.    Effect  of  Soiling  upon  Milk. 

Many  persons,  though  satisfied  of  the  good  effects  of 
soiling  upon  cattle  fed  for  beef,  fear  that  it  will  not  operate 
well  in  the  production  of  milk.  But  as  the  cow  gets  the 
same  food  in  stall  as  she  would  in  pasture,  it  is  not  easy  to 
see  why  these  fears  should  be  entertained.  The  cow  needs 
less  exercise  than  almost  any  other  domestic  animal,  and 
getting  the  fresh  grass  fed  to  her  in  stall,  we  might  natu- 
rally expect  an  increased  production  of  milk  from  a  given 
quantity  of  food;  and  this  has  proved  to  be  the  case,  accord- 
ing to  the  reports  of  both  English  and  American  feeders. 

Curwen,  of  Cumberland,  England,  and  Harley,  of  Glas- 
gow, Scotland,  established  dairies  on  the  soiling  system 
(1805-10),  and  were  very  successful  in  supplying  milk  to 
towns.  They  both  say  the  quantity  of  milk  is  much  greater 
in  proportion  to  the  food  consumed,  than  when  the  cows 
were  pastured  in  the  open  fields.  Mr.  Harley  estimates  one 
acre  of  grass  consumed  by  cows  in  stall  as  producing  as 
much  milk  as  five  acres  pastured  (Harleian  Dairy). 

Mr.  Quincy  had  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  his  cows 
yielded  considerably  more  during  the  whole  season  when 
soiled  than  when  pastured.  Eobert  L.  Pell,  who  kept  a 
dairy  on  this  system,  gave  strong  testimony  in  favor  of  a 
larger  yield  by  soiling. 

But  the  most  striking  test  of  the  two  systems  in  the  pro- 
duction of  milk,  is  published  by  Dr.  Rhode,  of  the  Eldena 
Royal  Academy  of  Agriculture,  of  Prussia.  It  was  con- 
ducted through  seven  years  of  pasturing  and  then  seven 
years  of  soiling.  Mr.  Hermann  is  the  experimenter.  The 
pasturing  began  in  1853,  and  ended  in  1859 — the  soiling 
he^an  in  1860  and  ended  in  1866.     From  40  to  70  cows 


SOILING.  177 

were  pastured  each  year,  and  a  separate  account  kept  with 
each  cow.  The  lowest  average  per  cow  is  1,385  quarts  in 
1855,  when  70  cows  were  kept,  and  the  liighest  1,941 
quarts  in  1859,  when  40  cows  were  pastured,  and  the  greatest 
quantity  given  by  one  cow  was  2,938  quarts.  The  average 
increased  during  the  last  four  years  from  1,400  to  1,941 
quarts.  The  average  per  cow  for  the  whole  seven  years  of 
pasturing  was  1,583  quarts. 

In  the  soiHng  experiment  29  to  38  cows  were  kept,  and 
the  lowest  average  per  cow  2,030  quarts,  in  1862,  and  the 
highest  average  per  cow  4,000  quarts,  in  18G6.  The  high- 
est quantity  given  by  any  one  cow  was  5,110  quarts,  in 
18G6.  The  average  per  cow  for  the  whole  seven  years  of 
soiling  was  3,442  quarts.  The  yield  of  the  same  cow  is 
compared  for  different  years.  Cow  No.  4  gave,  in  1860, 
3,636  quarts;  in  1863,  4,570  quarts;  and  in  1866,  4,960 
quarts.  Cow  No.  24,  in  1860,  3,293  quarts;  in  1863,  4,483 
quarts;  in  1866,  4,800  quarts. 

The  first  notable  fact  here  is  that  the  average  for  the 
whole  seven  years  of  soiling  was  more  than  double  that  of 
the  seven  years  of  pasturing.  Many  of  these  cows  were 
the  same  during  both  of  these  experiments;  and  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  same  cow  increased  from  year  to  year, 
which  shows  what  high  feeding  will  do,  and  also  tjiat  soil- 
ing was  conducive  to  the  health  of  the  cow  during  seven 
years.  He  fed  in  summer  green  clover  and  vetches,  and 
later  seradella  (a  leguminous  forage  plant),  and  in  addition 
oil-cake  and  rye  bran. 

On  the  whole,  this  is  a  most  encouraging  experiment 
to  the  dairyman,  showing  him  that  he  cannot  pay  too  much 
attention  to  feeding,  and  that  an  increase  of  food  and  care 
will  be  constantly  remunerated  by  the  increase  in  the  yield 
of  milk.  It  shows  him  tliat  he  may  expect  much  from  the 
development  of  his  cows,  and  that  soiling  is  one  of  the 
best  means  to  accomplish  this  object. 


It's  Deeding  animals. 

This  testimony  would  seem  to  establish  the  fact  that 
soiling  is  favorable  to  milk  production,  and  the  writer's 
experience  has  fully  confirmed  this  view.  He  has  often 
stated  the  gain  to  be  from  20  to  30  per  cent,  over  that  of 
ordinary  pasture.  This  may  be  accounted  for,  1st,  by  the 
saving  of  exercise  in  not  having  to  forage  over  the  pasture 
all  day  for  food,  as  the  food  required  to  support  this  exer- 
cise goes  to  the  secretion  of  milk;  and  2dly,  because  in 
soiling,  the  cow  gets,  uniformly,  all  the  food  she  can  digest; 
whilst  in  pasture  a  full  supply  of  food  is  uncertain,  and  not 
usually  obtained  for  more  than  brief  periods.  It  is  not 
contended  that  soiling  will  produce  more  milk  than  the 
best  pasture,  whilst  that  lasts — it  is  the  whole  season  upon 
which  this  improved  yield  is  calculated. 

The  dairyman  is  now  likely  to  enter  upon  the  system  of 
continuous  milk  production,  extending  through  the  winter 
as  well  as  the  summer;  and  the  new  plan  of  preserving 
green  fodder  in  silos  naturally  belongs  to  the  soiling  sys- 
tem. By  this  method  he  will  use  green  food  throughout 
the  year,  and  keep  his  cows  as  cheaply  in  winter  as  in  sum- 
mer; for  with  warm  stables,  the  fodder  produced  upo-n  tlie 
same  amount  of  land  that  kept  them  in  summer  will  give 
them  full  rations  in  winter;  and  the  same  flow  of  milk  may 
be  kept  up,  requiring  little  o-r  no  grain-ration,  according  to 
the  kind  of  green  food  preserved  for  winter  use.  It  seems 
likely,  with  the  successful  preservation  of  green  fodder, 
that  the  cost  of  keeping  stock  will  be  much  less  than 
under  the  old  system,  as  the  loss  by  drying  is  regarded, 
under  favorable  circumstances,  as  not  less  than  10  per  cent., 
and  under  the  ordinary  practice  much  more  than  that. 
But  for  winter  dairying,  this  green  food  will  have  the  im- 
portant quality  of  flavor.  Grasses  lose  much  of  their 
aroma  in  drying.  According  to  reports  from  France, 
where  ensilage  has  been  much  used  for  the  last  ten  years, 
the  aroma  of  the  green  food  is  preserved  in  silos.     This 


SOILING.  179 

will  give  as  fine-flavored  butter  in  winter  as  in  summer, 
and  as  large  a  quantity.  It  will  also  insure  better  health  to 
the  cows,  preventing  almost  wholly  impaction  of  the  mani- 
folds and  kindred  diseases  caused  by  dry,  innutritions  fod- 
der. The  grasses  and  various  green  forage  plants,  well 
preserved  for  winter  use,  will  render  the  raising  of  roots 
less  important,  as  the  sanitary  effect  of  the  roots  will  be 
found  in  the  preserved  grasses. 

7.    Effect  ox  ^Ieat  Production. 

The  same  reasons  considered  in  milk  production,  apply 
with  equal  force  to  the  growth  of  beef  or  mutton.  Animals 
grown  for  their  flesh  require  a  different  system  of  manage- 
ment from  those  whose  value  depends  upon  the  muscular 
development.  These  latter  need  much  exercise,  as  well  as 
appropriate  food  for  building  up  and  perfecting  the  bony 
and  muscular  systems,  whilst  those  used  for  human  food 
need  only  such  exercise  as  is  necessary  for  health,  a  vigor- 
ous appetite,  and  growth.  Absolute  command  over  the 
supply  of  food  is  here  necessary  to  insure  constant  progress, 
and,  as  we  have  seen,  soiling  gives  us  this  most  completely. 
For  meat  production  we  do  not  desire  extra  muscular  de- 
velopment, and  animals  full-fed  are  not  inclined  to  take 
excessive  exercise.  Calves  full-fed,  for  rapid  growth,  are 
content  to  enjoy  their  food  and  take  the  rest  required  for 
quiet  and  rapid  digestion.  Under  this  system  we  have 
found  it  easy  to  continue  the  calf-flesh,  as  some  feeders  call 
it,  keeping  up  that  plump  and  rounded  apj^earance  of  the 
animal  for  the  whole  time  of  feeding — twenty-four  to  thirty 
months— and  to  make  a  weight  of  1,200  to  1,600  lbs.  The 
purpose  here  is  to  produce  t-he  greatest  weight  of  meat  in 
the  shortest  time,  or  to  grow  the  greatest  weight  of  meat 
with  a  given  amount  of  food.  As  we  shall  see,  during  the 
progress  of  these  discussions,  time  is  a  most  important 
factor  in  this  result;  and  the  time  mav  be  shortened  mate 


180  PEEDIN"G    ANIMALS. 

rially  with  the  opportunity  the  skillful  feeder  has  to  observe 
and  supply  the  wants  of  each  animal  under  the  soiling 
system. 

The  English  have  adopted  a  system  of  beef-raising  upon 
a  partial  pasturage — soiling  and  grain  feeding  combined — 
and  the  result  is  an  average  much  greater  than  is  produced 
with  our  system  of  pasturing.  Moderate  grain  feeding, 
with  soiling  or  pasturing,  is  usually  a  decided  economy  in 
growing  meat;  for  grain  is  often  a  cheap  food,  and  being 
given  as  an  extra  is  applied  wholly  as  food  of  production 
to  the  gain  in  weight.  Cattle  are  able  to  assimilate  more 
nutriment  than  can  be  gained  from  grass,  limited  to  its 
powers  of  digestion.  A  small  amount  of  grain  will  thus 
be  assimilated,  besides  all  the  grass  the  steer  can  digest. 
For  this  reason  a  little  grain  is  nearly  always  profitable  to 
the  beef-raiser. 

Soiling  offers  the  oi:)portunity  to  push  the  growth  of  ani- 
mals in  warm  weather,  when  food  produces  a  far  better 
result ;  and  as  the  animals  are  constantly  under  the  eye  of 
the  feeder,  he  can  apportion  the  allowance  to  the  wants  of 
each.  This  system  is,  therefore,  admirably  adapted  to  the 
production  of  meat;  and  it  offers  the  most  feasible  plan 
for  the  production  of  meat  uj^on  the  small  farms  of  the 
East.  Under  the  present  system  of  pasturage,  the  Eastern 
States  are  largely  tributary  to  the  West  for  the  meat  con- 
sumed each  month.  To  partially  compensate  for  this, 
Eastern  farmers  often  buy  Western  steers  in  spring  and 
fatten  them  on  pasture  during  the  warm  season ;  but  as  it 
takes  three  to  five  acres  to  feed  a  steer  through  the  sum- 
mer, the  profit  is  too  small  to  be  worthy  of  consideration. 
One  acre  2:)repared  for  soiling  would  feed  the  steer  much 
better  than  four  times  this  amount  of  pasture,  and  on  this 
there  might  be  a  reasonable  profit.  The  great  need  on 
Eastern  farms  is  manure,  and  feeding  cattle  and  sheep  on 
the  soiling  system  would  produce  a  very  large  amount  of 


SOILING.  181 

manure  to  return  to  the  land.  This  system  of  summer 
feeding,  with  green  ensilage  for  winter  feeding,  would  ren- 
der the  Eastern  States  wholly  independent  of  meat  pro- 
duced beyond  their  borders.  They  could  afford  to  buy 
Western  grain  for  feeding  under  such  a  system;  and  this 
would  enrich  their  farms  each  year  and  cause  their  much- 
needed  grain  crop  to  be  greatly  increased.  This  system  of 
meat-production  would  soon  settle  the  question  of  profit- 
able farming  upon  all  the  arable  small  farms  of  the  Eastern 
and  Middle  States.  Much  of  the  laud  in  the  Eastern 
States,  now  regarded  as  unprofitable  to  cultivate,  would, 
under  this  system,  soon  produce  as  much  meat  per  acre  as 
the  most  favored  Western  lands,  under  their  system.  The 
abandoned  "old  homesteads"  would  again  become  the  scene 
of  a  busy  and  profitable  husbandry.  France,  large-ly  fol- 
lowing this  system,  has,  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and 
swine,  about  five  to  every  six  arable  acres;  and,  besides 
keeping  this  large  proportion  of  stock,  raises  nearly  as 
much  wheat  as  the  whole  production  of  the  United  States 
in  1880. 

Objections  to  Soiling. 

LABOR. 

The  chief  objection  to  this  system  has  always  been  the 
labor  required  to  carry  it  out.  This  extra  labor  consists, 
1st,  in  raising  soiling  crops — producing  them  in  regular 
rotation,  so  that  there  shall  be  no  lack  of  green  food  for 
the  animals  at  all  times  during  the  season — and,  2dly,  in 
cutting  these  green  crops  and  carting  them  to  the  feeding 
stable  or  yard,  feeding  the  animals  three  or  four  times  per 
day,  cleaning  the  stable,  if  one  is  used,  and  all  the  neces- 
sary details  belonging  to  the  system.  The  objections  as  to 
its  ill  effects  upon  the  health  and  thrift  of  the  animal,  or 
yield  of  milk,  etc.,  we  have  already  considered.  Let  us, 
then,  examine  carefully  the  question  of  labor.     First,  the 


lS-3  FF.EDIXG   ANIMALS. 

})reparation  of  the  land  to  be  used  for  soiling  must  be  thor- 
ough, in  order  that  full  crops  may  be  raised,  and  as  large 
an  amount  of  food  produced  to  the  acre  as  possible;  for  it 
will  cost  less  labor  to  gather  and  cart  2,000  lbs.  of  green 
clover  from  IG  than  from  30  to  40  rods,  or  the  same 
amount  of  green  corn  from  5  or  6  rods  than  15  rods.  The 
real  point  in  the  preparation  of  the  soil  for  a  good  crop  be- 
longs rather  to  the  question  of  good  farming  than  to  soiling. 
The  endeavor  should  be  to  raise  large  crops  for  their  profit, 
under  whatever  system  they  may  be  used;  and,  if  the  land 
is  in  .a  proper  condition  for  a  good  crop  of  corn,  millet, 
oats,'rye,  clover,  etc.,  then  it  will  require  no  special  prepa- 
ration for  such  soiling  crop;  and  a  farmer  should  not  con- 
sider a  system  that  requires  him  to  raise  good  crops  as 
objectionable.  The  legitimate  labor  of  soiling,  in  fitting 
and  seeding  an  acre  to  rye,  oats,  peas,  corn,  millet,  etc., 
when  these  crops  are  raised  for  that  purpose,  may  be  esti- 
mated at  14,  but  this  is  twice  or  thrice  repaid  by  the  extra 
value  of  the  crop  over  an  acre  of  pasture. 

Secondly,  the  labor  required  to  cut  and  haul  the  green 
crop  to  the  animals,  and  feed  it  out,  is,  no  doubt,  greatly 
exaggerated  in  the  minds  of  those  who  consider  it  theoreti- 
cally. The  cost  per  animal  w411  necessarily  depend  some- 
what upon  their  number— the  labor  of  attending  a  small 
number  must  be  greater  in  proportion  than  a  large  num- 
ber; but  that  is  the  case  under  any  mode  of  keeping.  It 
costs  more  in  proportion  to  fence  a  pasture  for  five  animals 
than  fifty.  The  smaller  the  lot,  the  larger  proportion  of 
fence  per  acre.  All  small  farms  labor  under  this  disadvan- 
tage, and,  in  soiling,  the  labor  will  be  more  in  proportion  : 
but  the  large  addition  to  the  animals  that  may  be  kept  by 
soiling  will  lead  small  farmers  before  large  ones  to  adopt  it. 

An  Experiment. — We  can  give,  perhaps,  the  best  idea 
of  the  labor  required  to  soil  a  moderate  number  of  animals 
in  relating  an  experiment  by  the  author  during  the  season 


SOILING.  183 

of  18G2.  This  will  also  illustrate  what  may  be  done  with- 
out much  preparation,  as  the  land  set  apart  was  mostly  only 
in  ordinary  farm  condition.  The  animals  to  be  fed  were  20 
steers,  3  and  4  years  old,  8  cows  and  6  horses.  These  were 
regarded,  in  consuming  capacity,  as  equal  to  35  one- 
thousand-pound  cows.  And  100  acres  of  land,  thought  to 
be  just  sufficient  to  pasture  these  animals,  were  selected, 
and  the  whole  product  either  fed  to  this  stock  as  green 
food  or  stored  by  itself  as  hay.  Ninety  acres  of  this  land 
were  in  ordinary  meadow  (some  clear  timothy,  some  timo- 
thy and  June  clover),  five  acres  in  excellent  clover,  two  in 
oats,  and  three  in  fodder-corn.  These  animals  were  fed 
from  May  20th  to  December  1st  from  this  hundred  acres, 
with  a  surplus  of  65  tons  of  ha}^  which  sold  in  barn  for 
8972.  An  accurate  account  of  the  labor  was  kept— it 
requiring  six  hours'  labor  of  one  man,  and  two  hours'  of 
one  horse,  per  day;  costing  in  those  cheap  times,  175.  The 
grass  was  cut  by  hitching  a  light  wood  mowing-machine 
behind  a  one-horse  cart,  driving  the  horse  around  the  plat 
till  sufficient  ^YRS  cut  for  a  day's  feed,  raking  and  pitching 
it  on  the  cart,  and  taking  to  the  barn  where  the  animals 
were  fed.     It  required  two  cart-loads  per  day. 

This  experiment  made  a  stronger  impression,  from  the 
fact  that  good  fat  cattle  were  very  low  that  year;  and 
after  deducting  the  cost  of  putting  hay  in  barn,  $97.50,  and 
the  labor  of  soiling,  $75— making  $172.50— a  net  gain  was 
left  of  $799.50;  whilst  the  20  steers,  of  1,100  lbs.  average 
weight,  brought  only  $34  per  head,  or  $G80,  although  fat- 
showing  a  gain  on  the  experiment  of  $119  more  than  the 
whole  value  of  the  20  steers,  besides  making  100  large  loads 
of  rich  manure,  worth  $100  more  than  the  droppings  would 
have  been  on  the  field.  The  manure  was  regarded  as  a  full 
compensation  for  the  labor  of  soiling,  and  more  than 
enough  to  pay  for  the  extra  labor  of  soiling  over  that  of 
pasturing;  for  the  labor  of  repairing  fences  was  saved,  and 


184  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

it  is  no  small  matter  to  keep  the  fences  in  repair  on  100 
acres  of  pasture  laud. 

This  experiment,  taking  common,  and  some  of  it  thiu 
meadow  for  cutting  (except  the  ten  acres  mentioned  as  in 
clover,  oats,  aud  fodder-corn),  was  using  smaller  crops  than 
is  recommended  for  soiling,  and,  therefore,  took  more  labor 
than  would  be  required  under  the  best  circumstances.  A 
smaller  number  would  require  more  time  proportionally 
under  the  same  conditions;  but  a  larger  number,  under 
just  the  right  conditions,  could  be  soiled  at  much  less  pro- 
portional cost. 

COST   OF    LABOR    FOR    ONE    HUNDRED    HEAD. 

Let  us  see  what  one  active  man  may  do  under  favorable 
conditions.  Let  100  head  of  cattle  be  arranged  on  both 
sides  of  a  convenient  feeding  floor,  with  space  to  drive  a 
wagon  along  the  floor;  and  let  the  soiling  crops  be  well 
prepared,  and  convenient  to  the  barn.  Now,  let  the  man 
be  provided  with  a  team,  mowing-machine,  wagon,  and  hay 
loader.  He  goes  into  a  field  of  green  rye,  standing  thick 
on  the  ground,  and  2  to  3  feet  high,  May  15th.  Starting 
in  with  the  mowing-machine,  he  cuts  100  rods,  leaving  the 
stubble  3  inches  high.  Now  he  hitches  his  hay-loader  be- 
hind his  wagon,  and  drives  the  wagon  over  the  mown  rye, 
the  hay-loader  picking  it  up  and  rolling  it  upon  the  hay- 
rack. Having  loaded  about  one-third  of  it,  or  35  hundred, 
he  drives  to  the  barn.  This  is  one-third  of  a  day's  feed. 
He  gathers  up  the  other  two  loads  and  brings  them  to  the 
barn,  when  the  day's  feed  is  provided.  This  has  taken 
him  less  than  four  hours.  If  now  the  weather  indicates  a 
storm,  he  repeats  this,  and  houses  another  day's  feed;  and 
sometimes  two  days'  ahead,  if  the  weather  indicates  a  storm 
of  more  than  one  day's  duration,  for  all  external  water 
should  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible.  Nature  has  provided 
sufficient  water  in  the  sap  of  the  plant,  and  any  excess 


SOILING.  185 

seems  to  be  practically  deleterious.  Cows  eating  wet  grass 
in  barn  will  fall  off  in  milk  nearly  as  much  as  if  out  in  the 
storm. 

Mr.  F.  S.  Peer,  who  has  written  a  practical  work  on  soil- 
ing, having  practiced  this  system  wholly  for  some  eight 
years,  recommends  a  stout  self-rake  reaper  for  cutting 
soiling  crops,  leaving  the  fodder  in  thick,  heavy  gavels, 
easily  pitched  from  the  gavel  upon  the  wagon.  It  might 
also  be  pitched  on  with  the  loader,  at  the  rate  of  a  ton  in 
five  minutes.  One  advantage  of  cutting  with  a  reaper 
Avould  be  its  less  liability  to  dry  before  hauling  to  stable. 

It  will  be  seen  that  our  feeder,  when  the  weather  is  pro- 
pitious, has  easily  put  in  his  day's  supply  for  the  hundred 
head  in  the  forenoon ;  that  the  team  is  released  for  other 
work  in  the  afternoon,  and  the  feeder  has  time,  not  only 
for  feeding,  but  for  cleaning,  littering,  etc.  The  hay-loader 
will  pick  up  the  grass  about  as  clean  as  it  is  usually 
pitched  out  of  a  windrow;  then  a  horse-rake,  passing  over 
the  ground,  will  gather  up  all  the  scatterings. 

In  cutting  clover  for  feeding,  the  labor  will  be  about  the 
same,  although  it  is  somewhat  easier  to  gather,  and  often 
produces  a  greater  weight  upon  an  acre;  but  it  also  con- 
tains a  larger  percentage  of  sap  or  water.  As  soon  as  the 
clover  gets  large  enough  to  cut,  it  is  well  to  mix  rye  and 
clover  together  for  feeding,  as  clover  contains  a  larger  per- 
centage of  albuminoids  than  the  rye,  and,  mingled  together, 
they  form  a  well-balanced  ration.  All  the  soiling  crops, 
except,  perhaps,  fodder-corn,  may  be  elevated  upon  the 
wagon  by  the  hay-loader,  and  the  labor  will  be  about  the 
same  as  that  described  with  winter  rye. 

From  this  statement,  it  becomes  evident  a  good  man 
may  perform  all  the  hand-labor  for  soiling  100  head  of 
cattle.  How  much  more  could  he  do  than  keep  the  fences 
in  repair  on  the  land  required  to  pasture  100  head?  Esti- 
mated in  the  ordinary  way,  the  hand-labor  would  cost  $1 


186  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

per  day,  or  1  cent  per  head,  per  day;  and  if  the  horse-labor 
and  other  expenses  be  added,  it  will  not  exceed  2  cents  per 
head,  per  day,  on  so  large  a  stock. 

In  speaking  of  the  ration  above  of  rye,  or  corn,  it  is  not 
intended  to  imply  that  a  ration  may  properly  be  made  up 
wholly  of  rye  or  corn  fodder.  These  are  good  soiling  foods, 
but  neitlier  forms  a  complete  ration,  and  should,  when 
practicable,  be  mixed  with  clover'  or  some  of  the  grasses. 
A  mixture  of  grasses,  such  as  is  found  in  pasture  or  old 
meadows,  afford  such  a  variety  as  makes  a  complete  ration. 

Thus  it  will  appear  that  the  labor  of  soiling  is  compen- 
sated in  three  ways — first,  in  saving  fences;  secondly,  in 
saving  manure;  and,  thirdly,  in  the  extra  production  of 
milk,  meat,  wo(^l,  or  growth. 

Soiling  Crops. 

The  success  of  this  system  must  depend  very  much  upon 
the  skill  exercised  in  the  production  of  the  proper  soiling 
crops.  It  is  not  proposed  to  cut  meagre  green  crops  for 
feeding  in  stall  or  yard;  for  the  labor — which  Ave  have  just 
been  considering — would  be  too  great  for  any  gain  to  be 
anticipated.  It  is  expected  that  the  land  for  soiling  will 
be  put  in  such  fine  condition  as  to  bear  excellent  crops, 
and  that  these  crops  be  located  convenient  to  the  place  of 
feeding.  A  good  crop  of  rye,  clover,  etc.,  will  require  only 
one  rod  or  less  per  day  for  each  animal,  whilst  a  thin  crop 
might  require  three  rods  for  the  same  purpose.  It  is, 
therefore,  most  important  that  we  should  give  careful 
attention  to  the  best  crops  for  cutting  green.  The  crop 
that  may  be  cut  earliest  in  spring  is — 

Winter  Kye. — This  flourishes  best  on  a  sandy  or  grav- 
elly soil,  but  will  grow  large  crops  on  heavy  clay  loam,  if 
well  under-drained.  It  yields  a  large  supply  of  green  food 
on  soil  only  moderately  rich,  as  its  roots  spread  out  in  a 
thick  network  over  a  considerable  space,  and  furnish  a 


SOILING.  187 

large  number  of  absorbents.  It  being  an  annual,  it  must 
be  cut  before  the  head  forms,  if  proposed  to  cut  more  than 
once,  and  it  will  then  spring  up  again  at  once  for  a  second 
crop.  Some  German  authorities  say  that  it  may  be  cut  at 
short  intervals  during  the  first  summer,  and  then  mature  a 
crop  of  seed  the  next  season.  Great  care  should  be  taken 
to  cut  it  in  its  young  and  succulent  state,  so  as  to  keep  it  in 
vigor.  If  the  crop  is  good,  and  the  land  sufficiently  moist, 
it  may  be  cut  every  three  or  four  weeks.  But  the  difficulty 
is  to  get  a  sufficiently  thick  growth  to  pay  well  for  cutting 
before  the  head  is  formed,  so  as  to  prevent  a  good  second 
growth.  And  therefore  it  is  mostly  cut  but  once,  and  for 
this  purpose  it  is  left  till  headed  out,  but  before  blossom. 
It  will  then  be  4  to  5K  feet  high,  and  yield  the  largest 
crop.  In  this  case,  the  land  is  used  for  a  second  soiling 
crop,  usually  corn  or  millet. 

Rye  should  be  sown  early  for  soiling — say  the  latter  part 
of  August,  or  early  in  September,  for  the  Middle  and  New 
England  States,  and  for  the  Southern  States  it  may  be 
sown  as  late  as  November.  It  is  better  sown  with  a  drill, 
at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  per  acre.  If  it  grows  vigorously 
in  fall,  feed  it  off  if  the  land  is  dry,  or  cut  it  high  with  a 
machine,  so  that  it  will  not  smother  under  snow.  The 
proportion  of  dry  organic  matter  in  green  rye  is  about  25 
per  cent.,  which  is  more  than  in  clover,  but  its  albuminoids 
are  in  less  proportion  than  in  clover  or  peas.  And  although 
we  have  found  cattle  to  do  Avell  upon  rye  alone  for  a  few 
weeks,  yet  it  is  better  to  give  some  more  nitrogenous  food 
with  it,  such  as  clover,  oil-cake,  wheat  middlings,  oat-meal, 
etc.  Rye  is  ready  to  cut  before  clover ;  and  small  quanti- 
ties of  these  other  foods  may  be  given  with  rye  till  clover 
is  ready  to  be  cut  and  fed  with  it.  Rye  and  clover  com- 
bined, make  a  most  excellent  ration  for  steers  or  cows. 
Medium  clover  is  ready  to  cut,  in  latitude  38^^  to  41*^, 
about  the  10th  to  the  25th  of  May,  and  is  but  a  short  time 


188  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

behind  rye.  Rye  is  rich  in  carbo-liydrates,  and  clover  in 
albuminoids,  so  that  the  one  is  the  complement  of  the 
other.  The  rye  crop  is  much  benefited  by  harrowing  once 
or  twice  in  spring  after  the  ground  becomes  sufficiently  dry 
to  drive  upon  it.     The  slanting-tooth  harrow  is  used. 

Red  Clover  {TrifoUum  pratense). — This  must  always 
be  one  of  the  most  important  crops  for  soiling,  both  on 
account  of  its  early  cutting,  and  its  large  amount  of  excel- 
lent green  food  grown  upon  an  acre.  It  contains  more 
water  in  the  green  state  than  rye ;  but  its  albuminoids 
and  carbo-hydrates  are  in  better  proportion  as  a  food  for 
young  and  growing  animals,  and  for  the  production  of 
milk.  On  dry,  rich  soils  very  large  crops  may  be  raised, 
even  as  high  as  twelve  tons  of  green  food  at  the  first  cut- 
ting in  early  blossom,  and  often  two  more  cuttings,  amount- 
ing to  eight  or  more  tons — yielding  even  as  high  as  twenty 
tons  of  green  clover  in  a  season,  or  over  six  tons  of  dry 
clover  hay.  This  proportion  of  green  to  dry  clover  is  cal- 
culated from  experiments  made  by  Prof.  Voelcker  on  the 
College  farm  at  Cirencester.  This  crop  is  cheaply  raised, 
is  subject  to  but  few  insect  enemies,  and  not  aftected  so 
much  by  drought  as  most  other  crops,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  its  long  tap  root  reaches  down  deep,  and  draws  up 
moisture  and  fertihty  from  the  subsoil.  Its  broad  leaves 
also  draw  largely  for  nourishment  upon  the  atmosphere. 

Hon.  Harris  Lewis,  a  dairyman  of  much  experience,  says 
one  acre  of  good  clover  will  feed  a  dairy  of  35  cows  for  15 
days;  that  3  acres  have  furnished  his  herd  of  38  cows  with 
food  for  35  days;  but  this  was  probably  on  partial  pasture. 

The  author,  many  years  since,  in  order  to  determine  the 
feeding  capacity  of  an  acre  of  heavy  clover,  measured  off 
40  rods  and  fed  to  cows,  and  found  it  equal  to  feeding  one 
cow  180  days.  The  two  succeeding  years  the  same  experi- 
ment was  repeated,  and  the  M  of  an  acre  was  found  equal  to 
feeding  one  cow  1G8  and  1G5  days  respectively,  but  these 


SOILING.  189 

cows  had  a  small  bare  pasture  lot  to  run  on  a  portion  of  the 
day.  The  cows  yielded  well  in  milk.  We  did  not  consider 
the  pasture  of  much  account. 

Orchard  Grass  {Dactylis  glomcrata)  is  an  excellent 
soiling  grass^  and  should  be  grown  with  clover,  as  they  are 
both  ready  to  cut  at  the  same  time.  They  both  commence 
a  fresh  growth  immediately  after  cutting.  This  grass 
attracted  the  favorable  attention  of  Washington.  He 
says:  "Orchard  grass,  of  all  others,  is,  in  my  opinion,  the 
best  mixture  with  clover;  it  blooms  precisely  at  the  same 
time,  rises  quickly  again  after  cutting,  stands  thick,  yields 
well,  and  both  cattle  and  horses  are  fond  of  it,  green  or  in 
hay.''  This  is  a  good  description  of  its  excellences, 
although  in  order  to  "stand  thick"  the  soil  must  be  made 
very  fine  and  a  large  amount  of  seed  sown.  We  have  seen 
it  growing  luxuriantly  ou  a  heavy  clay  loam.  With  proper 
attention  and  manuring  it  may  be  cut  at  least  three  times 
in  a  season. 

Lucerne  (Medicago  sativa). — This  plant  also  has,  where 
the  soil  is  adapted  to  it,  a  peculiar  value  for  soiling.  .  It 
belongs  to  the  class  of  leguminous  plants,  and,  like  clover, 
takes  a  very  deep  root,  penetrating  even  deeper  than  clover, 
the  roots  having  been  traced  as  much  as  thirteen  feet  beside 
a  pit.  Its  nutritive  qualities  are  about  equal  to  clover,  and 
it  produces,  in  favorable  situations,  a  much  greater  weight 
per  acre.  On  rich,  warm  land  it  gives  an  early  cutting,  and 
four  or  five  in  a  season.  It  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  oldest 
cultivated  forage  plants — was  in  common  use  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  It  was  cultivated  in  Xew  York 
nearly  a  century  ago.  Chancellor  Livingston  experimented 
with  it  in  1791,  and  reports  some  three  years  of  his  trial. 
He  obtained  over  six  tons  of  hay  in  five  cuttings.  The 
soil  best  adapted  to  it  is  a  deep,  rich  loam,  inclining  to 
sandy,  with  a  porous  subsoil,  or  a  well-drained  clay  loam. 
It  is  very  sensitive  to  the  .interference  of  weeds,  and,  in 


190  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

Europe,  is  usually  hoed,  as  we  do  corn  the  first  year,  and 
top-dressed  yearly,  in  the  fall,  with  well-rotted  manure. 
Its  roots  striking  so  deep  into  the  soil  i">revents  its  suffering 
from  di ought,  like  shallow-rooted  plants.  When  once  well 
established  it  will  yield  bountiful  crops  for  many  years.  It 
must  have  a  peculiar  value  as  a  forage  crop  on  the  warm, 
rich,  deep  soils  of  the  South  and  West.  It  is  grown  in 
some  parts  of  the  South,  and  quite  generally  in  California, 
under  the  name  of  Alfalfa.  This  particular  plant  was 
brought  from  Peru,  but  is  simply  a  variety  of  Lucerne. 

As  we  are  considering  the  crops  best  adapted  to  soiling, 
it  will  be  well  to  consider  them  in  about  the  order  of  their 
growth  for  cutting. 

Timothy  and  Large  Clover  come  after  lucerne  and  are 
ready,  as  a  soiling  crop,  in  June.  These  two  make  an  ex- 
cellent combination  of  green  food.  Timothy  {Phleinn 
pratense),  deservedly  stands  at  the  head  of  grasses  for  the 
hay  crop,  and  will  often  cut  eight  to  ten  tons  of  grass  be- 
fore blossom'ing  ;  and  at  that  period  makes  a  nutritious 
food  for  the  production  of  either  beef,  mutton  or  milk.  It 
is  also  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  soils.  The  only  obje<;- 
tion  to  it,  as  a  soiling  crop,  is  that  it  does  not  start  quickly 
after  cutting,  yet  it  sometimes  gives  a  heavy  second  crop  in 
favorable  seasons.  It  remains  in  victor  longer  when  cut 
early  than  late,  and  for  this  reason  we  have  found  it  a  val- 
uable aid  in  soiling. 

The  large  pea-vine  clover  does  not  differ  materially  in 
quality  from  common  red  clover,  but  is  of  larger  growth, 
later  in  maturing,  and  is  ready  to  cut  at  the  same  time  as 
timothy  ;  and  being  more  nitrogenous,  the  two  grasses  are 
complementary  to  each  other.  A  good  crop  of  timothy 
and  large  clover  will  often  reach  tw-elve  to  sixteen  tons  of 
green  food  per  acre,  at  the  first  cutting  ;  and  this  is  equal 
to  furnishing  food  for  a  thousand-pound  cow  or  steer  for 


SOILIXG    CKOPS.  191 

ten  months,  and  the  next  cutting  will  usually  furnish 
abundant  food  for  the  rest  of  the  year. 

Alsike  Clover  and  Timothy. — These  may  also  be 
grown  together  as  a  soiling  crop.  Alsike  clover  {Trifo- 
lium  Hylridum)  is  an  extremely  hardy  forage  plant,  will 
remain  fixed  in  the  soil  and  yield  good  crops  for  eight  or 
ten  years.  It  branches  very  much,  throws  out  many  stalks 
from  one  root,  thus  requiring  only  thin  seeding ;  the  roots 
.strike  very  deep  into  the  sub-soil.  The  period  of  bloom  is 
much  longer  than  in  red  clover,  and  it  is  in  good  condition 
to  cut  with  timothy.  By  beginning  to  cut  it  when  the  first 
blossoms  appear,  it  remains  in  condition  for  soiling  some 
three  or  four  weeks — an  important  point  in  some  seasons. 
It  may  be  doubtful  if  so  large  crops  are  raised  of  alsike  as 
of  red  clover,  but  the  greater  permanence  of  the  root  ren- 
ders it  an  important  plant  for  soiling.  Some  say  it  will 
not  yield  a  second  crop,  but  as  it  bears  cropping  well  in 
pasture,  and  is  deemed  a  valuable  plant  for  pasturage,  it  is 
not  easy  to  see  why,  if  cut  early,  it  will  not  grow  again 
after  cutting.  But  one  large  crop  of  alsike  and  timothy 
will  be  quill  satisfactory,  as  it  would  feed  twelve  cattle  for 
one  month  per  acre.  Only  one  half  the  seed  used  for  red 
clover  is  required  for  alsike.  It  is  sown  with  timothy 
either  spring  or  fall. 

For  Southern  soiling,  Desmodium,  Japan  clover,  Mexi- 
can clover,  Satin  grass  and  Gama  grass,  mentioned  on 
pages  149-52,  will  be  found  profitable.  These  may  all 
grow  large  crops  and  will  bear  several  cuttings. 

Green  Oats. — In  regular  order,  oats  will  mature  suf- 
ficiently to  cut  after  timothy.  If  the  soil  is  rich  and  warm, 
oats  will  come  forward  rapidly  and  make  a  good  cutting  in 
the  latter  part  of  June.  If  oats  are  cut  before  the  head  is 
formed,  they  will  make  a  second  growth,  starting  quickly 
and  growing  more  rapidly  the  second  than  the  first  time.  In 
this  respect  the  oat  plant  is  governed  by  the  same  rule  as 


19-2  FEEDIN-G    AXIMALS. 

winter  rve.  The  oat  crop  is  best  put  in  with  a  drill,  three 
bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre  for  soiling,  but  to  be  matured 
as  grain,  two  to  two  and  a  half  bushels  of  seed  is  better. 
Two  harrowings  with  the  slanting-toothed  harrow  should 
be  given  to  stimulate  the  growth  of  the  oats  and  cause  them 
to  tiller  freely.  Oats  will  then  grow  very  thick,  and  the 
heading  will  be  somewhat  delayed  so  that,  at  a  foot  high, 
they  may  be  cut  for  soiling  and  another  crop  grown  rapidly. 
But  it  is  best,  generally,  to  cut  only  one  crop  and  tlien  the 
grain  should  be  in  milk,  as  at  that  point  it  contains  the 
lavijest  amount  of  dif^estible  nutriment,  but  if  there  is  a 
considerable  quantity  to  be  used,  cutting  may  be  begun 
when  fairly  headed  out. 

Peas  and  Oats  may  also  be  combined  in  the  same  soil- 
ing crop,  and  they  will  be  ready  to  cut  at  the  same  time. 
This  combination  of  green  food  is  of  the  very  best — the 
pea  and  the  oat  being  both  rich  in  albuminoids — it  furnishes 
a  most  excellent  fattening  food,  as  well  as  one  for  the 
production  of  milk.  They  both  grow  well  together  and 
largely  increase  the  amount  of  nutriment  For  seed,  mix 
two  bushels  of  peas  to  forty  quarts  of  oats,  and  then  drill 
in  four  bushels  of  the  mixture  to  the  acre.  This  will  give  a 
good  stand,  and  soon  cover  the  ground  and  keep  down  the 
weeds.  This  combined  crop  is  ready  to  cut  as  soon  as  the 
pea  is  in  blossom,  but  is  best  when  the  seed  is  in  milk. 
"We  have  had  a  yield  of  fourteen  tons  of  this  combined 
green  food  to  the  acre,  and  no  better  food  is  grown.  This 
united  crop  may  be  put  in  early,  as  frost  does  not  injure 
either  peas  or  oats. 

Common  Millet  {Panicum  MtlUaciinn). — On  a  dry, 
rich,  light,  well-pulverized  soil,  millet  will  furnish  an  abun- 
dant yield  of  green  food  of  the  best  quality.  But,  being  a 
fine  seed,  it  is  not  adapted  to  heavy  soils,  which  do  not 
easily  pulverize,  especially  not  without  thorough  under- 
drainage.     Heavy  clay  loam,  if  rich   and  finely  pulverized, 


SOILING   CROPS.  193 

will  raise  the  heaviest  crops  ;  but  this  quality  of  soil  is  dif- 
ficult to  pulverize  sufficiently.  A  very  great  weight  of 
green  food  may  be  produced  from  millet.  It  will  grow 
four  to  five  feet  high,  and,  if  thick  on  the  ground,  will 
yield  fifteen  to  eighteen  tons  per  acre.  In  this  green  state 
it  has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  one  to  seven,  whilst  timothy  grass 
is  one  to  eight,  which  shows  well  for  quality.  If  sown 
broadcast,  32  to  40  quarts  of  seed  may  be  used  ;  if  planted 
with  a  drill,  16  to  20  quarts,  but  it  should  be  put  in  not 
more  than  half  to  an  inch  deep.  May  be  sown  from  first 
of  May  to  first  of  July.  Should  be  cut  before  or  in  early 
blossom. 

HuN"GARiAiq"  Grass  [Setaria  Germanica)  belongs  to  the 
millet  family,  and  its  quality  as  a  green  food  is  nearly  or 
quite  as  good.  It  has  a  still  finer  seed.  It  does  not  grow 
quite  so  tall,  but  grows  a  heavy  crop  on  good  land,  which 
requires  to  be  of  the  same  quality  as  for  millet. 

Sixteen  to  twenty  quarts  of  seeds  give  a  good  stand.  It 
should  be  cut  for  soiling  (if  only  a  single  crop)  before  or 
while  blossoming,  but  two  crops  may  be  cut  if  the  first  is 
taken  before  the  head  is  formed.  It  grows  again  very 
quickly,  yet  it  is  doubtful  if  two  crops  would  be  as  profit- 
able as  one  full  crop.  For  seed  Hungarian  grass  carries  a 
shorter,  more  erect,  spike-like  panicle,  and  yields  less  grain 
than — 

iTALiAi^  Millet  {Setaria  Italica),  which  grows  four 
feet  high,  and  has  an  abundance  of  foliage,  with  a  long 
and  numerously-branched  panicle,  yielding  a  large  amount 
of  seed.  This  is  said  in  Europe  to  produce  three  to  five 
times  as  much  grain  as  wheat  to  the  acre.  Its  head  is  of  a 
yellowish  color,  whilst  the  Hungarian  is  darker,  the  seeds 
also  darker. 

The   millets    grown   in   this   country   are   considerably 
mixed,  almost  all  kinds  being  found  in  every  field.     The 
Italian  is  often  called  ^'  Golden  Millet." 
9 


194  FEEDIKQ   ANIMALS. 

When  the  land  is  appropriate  the  millets  cannot  be 
safely  left  out  of  the  list  of  soiling  crops. 

Vetch  ( Vicia  Sativa). — There  is  both  a  winter  and  a 
spring  variety  of  vetch,  but  the  winter  is  thought  the  best. 
It  may  be  sown  with  winter  rye,  or,  if  the  spring  variety, 
with  oats.  We  have  had  no  experience  with  the  vetch,  but 
know  that  it  is  grown  between  Toronto  and  Montreal,  in 
Canada,  and  see  no  reason  why  it  may  not  be  grown  in  a 
similar  climate  on  the  American  side.  It  is  a  valuable 
soiling  crop  in  England  and  Europe.  Its  food  value  is  very 
similar  to  the  pea.  It  is  highly  esteemed  as  food  for  work 
horses  during  summer.  It  may  be  cut  several  times  in  a 
season,  and  furnishes  a  large  amount  of  food. 

Fodder  Corn. — This,  although  given  near  the  last,  is 
not  least.  Corn  is  adapted  to  the  soils  of  all  the  States, 
and  produces,  under  favorable  circumstances,  enormous 
yields  of  green  fodder.  The  author  has  grown  28  tons  to 
the  acre ;  but  M.  Goffart,  of  France,  grows  from  30  to  50 
tons,  as  he  has  stated  in  his  work  upon  '^Ensilage."  His 
statements  sefcm  quite  reliable,  as  he  weighed  whole  fields 
when  brought  to  silo.  There  is  no  doubt  that  it  produces 
a  larger  weight  of  green  food  than  any  other  crop  raised  in 
the  United  States  except,  perhaps,  sorghum,  and  this  ren- 
ders its  study,  as  a  soiling  crop,  of  the  highest  importance. 
Its  nutritive  ratio  is  about  one  to  nine;  so  it  is  not  so  nu- 
tritious as  grass  or  millet;  yet,  being  digestible,  and  fur- 
nishing such  an  abundant  quantity,  it  is  a  most  desirable 
crop,  as  it  can  be  fed  in  combination  with  clover,  oats  and 
peas,  and  other  more  nitrogenous  food.  The  largest  crops 
may  be  grown  with  the  large  Western  or  Southern  varie- 
ties of  field  corn;  and  next  to  these,  mammoth  sweet  corn 
and  Stowell's  evergreen  sweet  corn.  The  quality  of  the 
sweet  varieties  is  better  than  the  field  varieties.  The 
greatest  amount  of  desirable  nutriment  is  obtained  by 
planting  in  drills  32  inches  apart,  so  that  the  corn  can  be 


SOILIISTG   CROPS.  195 

thoroughly  cultivated.  The  sweet  corn  will  then  grow  ears 
upon  a  large  proportion  of  the  stalks,  and  these  ears,  in 
the  soft  state,  greatly  improve  the  quality  of  the  food  for 
both  fattening  and  milk  production.  When  thus  grown, 
cattle  fatten  rapidly  upon  it,  and  cows  yield  milk  abun- 
dantly. Corn  is  so  easily  grown,  and  produces  so  largely, 
that  dairyme^n  make  it  the  principal  green  food  to  sustain 
their  herds  upon  short  pasture.  Judicious  feeders,  when 
they  have  no  other  green  food  but  fodder  corn,  are  in  the 
habit  of  feeding  wheat  bran  and  middlings  with  the  corn 
fodder,  so  as  to  make  it  a  well-balanced  food. 

SoKGHUM. — This  is  very  much  of  the  nature  of  Indian 
corn,  but  contains  a  slightly  larger  percentage  of  albu- 
minoids; and,  on  soils  suited  to  it,  as  large  crops  may  be 
grown  as  of  corn.  It  requires  a  finer  tilth  than  com,  and 
more  careful  attention  in  the  beginning  of  its  growth.  It 
needs  to  be  grown  very  thick  in  the  drill  to  prevent  the 
stalks  from  having  a  hard,  flinty  rind.  It  contains  much 
sugar,  which  is  very  digestible  and  fattening,  rendering  it 
also  appetizing  to  the  cattle.  It  grows  very  tall,  and  thus 
yields  a  great  weight,  often  30  or  more  tons  per  acre.  Its 
curing  for  winter  fodder  should  not  be  attempted,  as  it 
contains  so  large  a  proportion  of  juice  as  to  render  this 
almost  impracticable. 

How  TO  Use  the  Green  Crop. 

Our  farmers  are  quite  too  much  inclined  to  confine 
animals  to  a  single  food  whilst  it  lasts,  and  then  take 
another  and  feed  that  in  the  same  way.  Under  the  soil- 
ing system,  as  every  other  system  of  feeding,  the  first 
study  should  be  to  give  as  much  variety  in  the  ration  as 
convenience  will  allow.  Winter  rye  makes  a  wholesome 
soiling  crop,  but  it  is  much  better  to  feed  it  with  clover 
when  that  can  be  done.  The  two  make  a  better-balanced 
ration,  and  the  over-succulent  clover  is  modified   by  the 


196  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

less  succulent  rye.  When  the  only  green  crop  is  clover  in 
its  most  succulent  state,  we  have  often  run  the  clover 
through  a  cutter  and  then  mixed  it  with  one-quarter  to 
one- third  of  its  bulk  of  cut  straw,  let  it  lie  in  mass  for  a 
few  hours  and  the  straw  absorbs  the  extra  moisture,  when 
the  whole  will  be  eaten  greedily,  the  straw  preventing  all 
danger  of  bloat.  We  have  been  a  little  surprised  to  find 
that  cows  will  yield  the  same  milk  upon  a  mixture  of  one- 
fourth  straw  with  the  clover  as  when  fed  on  clover  alone. 
The  test,  however,  was  not  made  so  accurately  as  to  deter- 
mine whether  they  made  the  milk  on  a  quarter  less  clover ; 
they  may  have  eaten  nearly  as  much  clover  and  the  straw 
extra.  But  with  a  great  deal  of  experience  in  thus  mixing 
in  straw,  we  concluded  that  it  was  a  profitable  way  to  use 
straw,  as  we  found  on  examining  the  drippings  that  the 
straw  was  well  digested.  When  the  clover  begins  to 
blossom,  its  succulence  is  so  much  reduced  that  it  is  quite 
safe  to  feed  it  alone.  When  the  system  of  soiling  is  con- 
ducted on  a  large  scale,  the  use  of  the  feed-cutter  will  be 
found  very  profitable  in  mingling  all  the  fine  and  coarse 
parts  of  the  fodder  together,  especially  if  the  green  crop 
is  fed  a  little  too  mature,  so  as  to  become  slightly  tough. 
The  animals  relish  such  tough  green  food  much  better 
after  being  cut. 

Fodder  corn  should  also  be  fed  with  second-crop  clover 
when  the  two  are  ready  at  the  same  time.  If  fodder  corn 
and  clover  are  run  through  a  cutter  together,  even  when 
the  corn-stalks  are  large,  every  part  will  be  eaten  clean. 
A  very  heavy  crop  of  corn  is  largely  benefited  by  being  cut 
into  quarter-inch  lengths,  and  if  no  other  green  crop,  such 
as  clover,  millet,  or  vetches,  etc.,  is  to  be  had,  then  mix 
one-fourth  cut  clover  hay  with  it,  or  two  quarts  of  bran, 
or  one  pound  of  linseed-meal,  or  cotton-seed-meal,  per 
bushel  of  cut  corn.  This  will  render  the  corn  a  profitable 
ration. 


SOILING   HORSES.  197 

Sorghum,  when  used  as  a  soiling  crop,  is  even  more 
benefited  bj  being  passed  through  the  cutter  and  reduced 
to  very  short  lengths.  This,  also,  should  be  mixed  with 
other  green  food,  such  as  clover,  millet,  orchard  grass, 
lucerne,  etc.,  or  some  dry  food  as  above  described. 

The  feeder  will  often  be  able  to  feed  three  or  four  differ- 
ent green  foods  at  the  same  time,  or  he  can  feed  two  one 
day  and  change  to  two  others  next  day,  and  he  can  be 
guided  in  the  selections  by  the  chemical  qualities  of  each, 
and  the  tables  we  gave  in  the  last  chapter  will  enable  him 
to  determine  the  proper  combination.  He  need  never  fear 
of  giving  too  great  a  variety. 

Soiling    Horses. 

This  class  of  stock  is  thought  by  many  to  be  quite 
unadapted  to  the  soiling  system,  especially  colts,  as  they 
require  exercise  to  develop  the  muscular  power;  soiling  is 
thought  to  require  too  close  confinement.  This  arises 
from  a  misconception  of  the  flexibility  of  this  system. 
Soiling  does  not,  necessarily,  require  the  confinement  of 
animals  any  more  than  pasturing.  It  is  true  that  pastur- 
ing furnishes  larger  fields  to  range  in;  but  nearly  every 
farm  can  devote  a  laue  running  to  the  wood  lot  as  space 
to  exercise  in.  This  lane  is  necessary  for  the  convenience 
of  the  farm,  and  generally  furnishes  a  road  to  the  different 
parts  of  the  tillable  land  and  meadow.  This  will  furnish 
abundant  room  for  colts  to  make  trials  of  speed,  and  afford 
all  the  exercise  required  to  develop  muscle.  This  runway 
is  easily  fenced  so  substantially  as  wholly  to  prevent  the 
colts  from  jumping,  and  thus  becoming  troublesome.  We 
have  raised  a  dozen  colts  in  this  way,  and  found  them  to 
develop  in  every  respect  as  well  as  those  pastured.  That 
colts  may  be  as  little  confined  as  possible,  racks  may  be 
arranged  under  a  shed,  into  which  the  soiling  food  may 
be  placed,  and  the  colts  have  access  to  it  at  all  times.    We 


198  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

found  this  food  to  work  well  with  brood  mares  and  their 
foals.  Having  the  food  of  the  mares  wholly  under  control, 
their  production  of  milk  will  be  more  uniform,  and  the 
growth  of  the  foals  much  better,  than  on  pasture.  The 
dam  requires  full  feeding  upon  appropriate  food,  and  this 
may  always  be  given  in  soiling,  as  any  defect  in  the  succu- 
lence and  nutrition  of  the  grasses  or  other  soiling  food 
may  be  supplemented  with  middlings,  oil-meal  and  oats. 
The  foals  are  also  constantly  under  the  eye  of  the  feeder, 
easily  become  accustomed  to  handling,  and  may  be  taught 
to  take  other  food  at  a  younger  age.  Early  familiarity  with 
the  attendant  and  docility  are  not  only  favorable  to  the 
foal's  progress  in  development,  but  to  its  easy  management 
at  the  training  age.  The  vigorous,  steady  and  healthy 
growth  of  colts  is  most  essential  to  their  future  value  as 
serviceable  animals,  and,  therefore,  to  the  profit  of  the 
breeder.  Soiling  offers  the  most  complete  control  over  the 
food  and  management  of  the  colts,  and,  therefore,  under 
this  system  they  may  be  grown  with  much  more  uniform 
success,  and,  on  land  worth  fifty  or  more  dollars  per  acre, 
much  cheaper  than  by  pasturing.  As  we  have  shown  in 
another  chapter,  the  foal  responds  more  quickly  to  the  use 
of  cow's  milk  than  any  other  food  after  weaning,  and  this 
may  be  skimmed  milk,  after  teaching  it  first  to  drink  new 
milk.  The  colt  being  under  attention  in  soiling,  this  extra 
food  may  be  given  with  very  little  labor.  From  consider- 
able experience  we  regard  the  soiling  system  as  well 
adapted  to  the  raising  of  horses  in  all  stages,  from  the 
suckling  colt  to  the  mature  horse. 

Soiling  Cattle. 

We  have  treated  incidentally  of  this  subject  in  previous 
pages,  but  will  here  speak  of  the  appropriate  arrangement 
of  cattle  in  soiling  economically. 

1st.  Those  who  believe  that  steers  should  have  full 
liberty  and  freedom  of  exercise  at  all  times  through  the 


SOILING   CATTLE.  199 

summer  may  arrange  a  double  rack,  with  a  feeding  trough 
or  manger  for  grain  on  each  side,  under  the  center  of  an 
open  shed,  high  enough  to  drive  a  wagon  under  and  deliver 
the  soiling  food  into  the  rack.  This  rack  will  accommo- 
date a  row  of  cattle  on  each  side,  and  may  be  constructed 
in  several  ways,  but  the  following  is  as  good  as  any: 
Construct  a  platform  4  feet  8  inches  wide  and  18  inches 
high,  of  iK-inch  plank,  and  let  the  two  outside  planks  be 
16  inches  wide,  and  these  planks  form  the  bottoms  of  the 
feeding  troughs  or  mangers.  Nail  a  plank  10  inches  wide 
on  each  edge  of  these  outside  planks,  and  you  have  a 
manger  8}4  inches  deep.  Between  these  two  mangers  will 
be  a  rack,  consisting  of  sticks,  round  or  1/i  inches  square 
and  4  feet  long.  Set  these  up  4  inches  apart,  2  feet  wide 
at  bottom,  flaring  4  feet  at  top.  These  rack  sticks  may  be 
fastened  to  the  manger  at  the  bottom  and  between  two 
strips  of  board  at  the  top  to  form  an  upper  rim,  tying 
across  from  side  to  side  every  six  feet.  The  green  fodder 
is  thrown  into  this  rack,  and  the  cattle  eat  from  either  side. 
The  grain,  or  ground-feed  ration,  if  any  is  given,  will  be 
placed  in  the  mangers.  The  greatest  objection  to  this 
mode  of  feeding  is  that  the  master  animals  may  annoy  the 
timid  ones.  The  steers  may  be  tied,  but  this  will  add 
somewhat  to  the  labor;  or  it  might  be  arranged  with  gates 
to  shut  in  each  animal,  but  most  farmers  would  prefer  to 
have  them  loose.  The  rack  should  be  long  enough  to  give 
2K  feet  to  each  animal.  A  careful  feeder  may  devise 
methods  to  give  the  timid  animals  their  share.  Pure 
water  should  be  provided  near  this  feeding  rack,  where 
the  cattle  may  drink  at  pleasure. 

2dly.  Those  who  have  had  most  experience  think  a  well- 
ventilated  stable,  with  the  cattle  tied  so  as  to  be  easy, 
having  freedom  of  action  (the  tie  shown  in  figure  10,  page 
98,  or  the  same  somewhat  modified  and  described  on  a 
future  page,  is  among  the  best),  will  give  the  best  result 


200  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

in  feeding,  as  here  every  animal  gets  its  rations  perfectly 
undisturbed,  and  the  ration  may  be  varied  to  suit  the 
particular  requirements  of  the  animal.  With  the  tie  here 
mentioned,  no  greater  space  is  required  than  with  stanch- 
ions— say  3  feet  2  to  6  inches  for  large  cattle,  the  tie 
permitting  them  to  lick  themselves  and  change  positions 
at  will.  They  should  be  arranged  upon  both  sides  of  a 
feeding-floor,  with  heads  turned  to  the  floor.  This  affords 
the  greatest  facility  for  feeding,  as  both  rows  of  cattle  may 
be  fed  at  the  same  time  from  a  wagon  driven  along  the 
floor.  Animals  that  are  reared  in  this  way  will  take  their 
places  regularly,  and  are  easily  fastened.  This  feeding- 
floor  should  be  ten  feet  wide  in  the  clear  of  the  mangers, 
so  that  a  wagon  with  a  hay-rack  on  may  be  conveniently 
driven  through  it.  In  this  case  the  cattle  may  be  let  out 
from  10  A.  M.  to  3  p.  M.  for  exercise  and  water,  if  water  is 
not  provided  where  they  stand  in  the  stable.  A  farm  that 
carries  on  a  regular  system  of  stock  feeding  will  have  con- 
venient buildings  for  that  purpose,  especially  in  those  States 
where  cattle  are  fed  in  barns.  A  well-constructed  stable  is 
also  cooler  than  the  open  air,  and  troubled  less  with  flies. 

Under  this  system  the  skillful  feeder  has  the  condition 
and  thrift  of  his  cattle  wholly  under  his  control,  and  his 
profit  will  consist  in  giving  all  the  food  they  can  properly 
digest.  He  may  take  full  advantage  of  the  element  of  time, 
securing  the  largest  growth  in  the  shortest  time,  which 
always  produces  the  greatest  profit. 

Soiling  Cows. 

In  feeding  cows  will  be  found  one  of  the  most  important 
uses  of  the  soiling  system.  To  produce  milk  profitably, 
cows  must  be  full  fed  constantly  whilst  in  milk,  and  this 
system  furnishes  the  surest  means  to  that  entl.  It  is  also 
most  important  that  cows  should  be  kept  comfortable — 
that  they  should  have  a  cool  stable  in  summer  and  a  warm 


SOILIN-G  COWS.  201 

one  in  winter.  If  cows  are  fed  in  stable  in  hot  weather, 
then  it  should  be  at  least  as  cool  as  in  the  open  air,  and 
this  requires  that  the  walls  of  the  stable  should  be  non- 
conductors. A  thin  wooden  wall — that  is,  a  frame,  merely 
boarded — will  make  a  hot  stable,  the  heat  of  the  cows' 
bodies  assisting  in  raising  the  temperature.  If  made  of 
wood,  the  wall  should  be  double,  and  the  space  filled  with 
sawdust,  tanbark,  or  corn-cobs,  laid  in  straight  and  com- 
pact, and  then,  being  well  ventilated,  it  will  be  cool.  A 
concrete  wall,  such  as  has  been  described  in  the  chapter 
on  stock  barns,  will  make  a  very  cool  stable  in  summer  and 
a  warm  one  in  winter,  as  it  is  a  very  poor  conductor  of 
heat  and  cold.  The  cows  should  be  arranged  the  same  as 
described  for  the  fattening  cattle,  with  heads  turned  to  the 
feeding-floor.  If  wholly  soiled,  the  cows  should  be  fed 
four  times — at  6  and  9  a.  m.  and  3  and  6  p.  m.,  giving  air 
and  exercise  between  10  a.  m.  and  3  p.  m.  It  is  particularly 
important  to  look  after  the  condition  and  yield  of  each 
cow,  and,  being  fed  in  stable,  where  each  cow  eats  unmo- 
lested, it  is  easily  done.  This  affords  such  control  over 
the  food  of  each  cow  that  her  capacity  for  milk  production 
can  be  tested,  and,  after  a  thorough  trial,  can  be  passed 
upon  and  selected  to  keep  or  be  discarded. 

We  have  had  many  years'  experience  in  soiling  cows,  and 
find  that  healthy,  vigorous  cows  of  900  lbs.  will  eat  100  lbs. 
of  succulent  clover  or  grass,  the  same  of  green  oats,  green 
rye,  or  peas,  85  lbs.  of  millet  or  Hungarian  grass  in  blos- 
som, and,  there  being  more  water  in  green  fodder-corn, 
they  will  eat  100  to  125  lbs.  of  this.  These  rations  are  the 
average  for  a  herd  of  cows  of  900  lbs.  weight.  The  loads 
of  green  food  were  weighed  upon  the  scales  for  many 
weeks,  to  find  the  average  amount  of  such  food  required. 
But  some  cows  eat  considerably  more  than  others,  and  the 
feeder  must  have  judgment  to  determine  the  wants  of  each. 
Milk  is  made  from  the  daily  food,  and  one  cow,  yielding 


202  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

much  more  than  another  of  the  same  weight,  requires 
more  food  to  balance  the  account.  It  is  very  easy  in  soil- 
ing to  add  a  small  grain  ration,  and  this  is  especially 
necessary  if  green  corn  is  fed,  for  this  food  is  not  rich 
enough  in  albuminoids  to  feed  alone  for  any  considerable 
length  of  time.  It  should  be  fed  with  some  nitrogenous 
grain  or  feed,  such  as  Avheat-bran,  oats,  oil-meal,  or  pea- 
meal,  clover,  peas,  or  millet.  But  it  is  easy,  when  soiling 
is  undertaken  systematically,  to  grow  a  variety  of  crops, 
so  that  corn  need  seldom  be  fed  alone.  When  cows  are 
properly  soiled,  they  yield  a  much  more  uniform  quantity 
of  milk  through  the  whole  season,  and  thus  produce  a 
larger  aggregate  yield. 

It  is  better  to  have  pure  running  water  within  reach  of 
the  cow  as  she  stands  in  stable,  or,  at  least,  in  a  trough  in 
the  manger,  which  may  be  opened  for  her  twice  or  more 
per  day. 

We  regard  it  as  important  also  to  place  cows  upon  a 
self-cleaning  iron  platform,  because,  standing  so  much  in 
stable,  it  is  very  difficult  to  keep  them  clean  in  any  other 
way.  This  self-cleaning  stable  was  illustrated  and  de- 
scribed on  pages  97  to  101.  It  is  not  expensive,  and  is  so 
durable  that  it  will  save  its  cost  in  labor  many  times  over. 
Cows  may  be  soiled  in  rack,  under  a  shed,  as  described 
for  feeding  cattle,  and  milked  in  the  yard,  as  many 
dairymen  still  do;  but  the  stable  is  preferable,  for  the 
reasons  given  above. 

Soiling  Sheep. 

Some  will  regard  soiling  sheep  as  quite  impracticable, 
thinking  that  these  animals  cannot  bear  the  necessary  con- 
finement. A  single  small  field  will  not  do  for  sheep  to  run 
on,  as  for  cattle;  and,  hence,  they  think  sheep  cannot  be 
soiled.  But  this  opinion  is  not  well  founded.  They  may 
be  soiled  as  safely  as  any  other  stock.     It  is  only  necessary 


SOILING   SHEEP.  203 

that  they  be  kept  in  small  flocks,  and  changed  frequently 
to  fresh  ground.  This  can  be  done  by  using  a  portable 
hurdle  fence.  The  fields  first  cut  over  for  soiling  may  be 
used  to  hurdle  sheep  upon.  Let  the  sheep  be  kept  in  flocks 
of  fifty  to  one  hundred.  Surround  a  plat,  ten  rods  square, 
with  a  movable  hurdle  fence,  and  on  this  plat  may  be 
placed  fifty  to  one  hundred  sheep,  to  be  fed  in  racks  on  each 
side  of  the  field.  These  racks  may  be  made  very  light,  and 
thus  be  easily  moved.  The  sheep  are  fed  on  this  plat  one 
week,  and  then  removed  to  the  plat  adjoining.  By  having 
extra  hurdle  fence  for  three  sides  of  the  field,  this  may  be 
placed  so  as  to  surround  a  new  field  on  one  side,  and  the 
sheep  then  let  into  the  adjoining  plat.  This  gives  at  least 
one  rod  of  fresh  ground  to  each  sheep  per  week;  and  the 
droppings  will  make  a  slight  top-dressing  of  manure,  and, 
with  one  bushel  of  j^laster  sown  over  this,  to  prevent  evap- 
oration of  its  volatile  elements,  will  be  found  to  increase 
the  next  cutting.  This  may  be  carried  on  across  the  field; 
and  by  feeding  the  sheep  all  the  green  food  they  can  eat, 
they  will  mot  injure  the  growth  of  the  second  cutting.  The 
greatest  difficulty  in  this  plan  is  in  furnishing  water  to  the 
sheep.  If  this  is  obviated  by  having  springs  or  a  stream  of 
water  in  the  field  thus  used,  everything  will  work  well.  We 
have  tried  this  plan,  and  found  no  practical  difiiculty — the 
sheep  doing  excellently  well,  and  remaining  healthy. 

The  reader  will  see  how  many  advantages  may  attend 
this  mode  of  feeding  sheep.  The  different  classes  of  sheep 
may  thus  be  separated,  and  each  put  under  the  course  of 
feeding  desired  to  accomplish  the  special  purpose  aimed  at. 
Those  intended  for  market,  may  be  fed  specially  to  that 
end;  and,  having  the  absolute  control  of  the  ration,  they 
may  be  pushed  as  rapidly  as  the  feeder  chooses.  A  small 
grain  ration  may  be  given  with  the  green  food,  combining 
it  so  as  to  produce  the  most  rapid  fattening.  This  plan 
also  keeps  the  sheep  constantly  under  the  eye  of  the  shepherd, 


S04  FEEDING  AKIMALS. 

and  their  condition  is  much  more  under  his  control  than 
when  in  pasture. 

In  soiling  sheep,  the  grasses  must  be  cut  in  a  more  tender 
and  succulent  condition  than  for  cattle  or  horses.  Meadow 
grasses  should  be  cut  when  from  G  to  10  inches  high,  before 
fairly  heading  out,  and  clover  the  same.  If  clover  is 
allowed  to  come  into  blossom,  the  sheep  will  only  eat  the 
heads,  leaves,  and  small  branches,  rejecting  the  body 
of  the  stalks.  The  only  way  to  induce  them  to  eat 
clover  in  blossom  is  to  cut  it  all  into  one-half  inch  lengths 
in  a  straw  cutter,  and  then  feed  in  troughs.  In  this  form 
sheep  will  eat  it  clean. 

Soiling  offers  the  best  plan  for  raising  lambs  for  market, 
as  the  dam  may  be  fed  in  the  best  way  to  produce  a  large- 
yield  of  milk,  and  the  lambs  furnished  with  such  addi- 
tional food  as  will  push  them  the  fastest  for  an  early  market, 
at  which  the  best  prices  are  obtained.  We  regard  soiling  as 
specially  adapted  to  sheep-feeding  where  lambs  and  mutton 
are  principally  depended  upon. 

As  to  the  matter  of  health,  the  English  practice  of  fold- 
ing sheep  upon  turnips  whilst  they  eat  them  out  of  the 
ground,  confines  them  longer  on  the  same  space  than  this 
proposed  plan  of  soiling ;  and,  therefore,  it  need  not  be 
feared  that  their  health  will  suffer  under  such  confinement 
with  the  weekly  change. 

In  the  hottest  part  of  the  season  there  should  be  some 
shelter  to  screen  them  from  the  sun.  A  simple  canvas 
awning  will  answer  every  purpose,  and  is  easily  put  up  and 
removed.  This  will  completely  modify  the  sun's  rays,  and 
add  much  to  their  comfort.  This  plan  of  feeding  reduces 
the  labor  of  delivering  the  food  to  the  sheep,  since  the  soil- 
ing crops  are  near.  From  our  experiments  in  soiling  sheep, 
we  became  strongly  impressed  with  its  importance,  espe- 
cially on  small  farms  and  near  good  markets  for  mutton. 


exterminatii^-q  weeds.  205 

Soiling  Exterminates  Weeds. 

We  wish  to  emphasize  this  point,  as  it  is  of  great  practi- 
cal importance.  In  many  parts  of  the  country  noxious 
weeds  almost  render  the  land  valueless  for  cultivated  crops,  as 
the  weeds  occupy  so  much  of  the  soil  that  there  is  only  room 
left  to  raise  a  crop  adequate  to  pay  the  labor.  In  a  proper 
system  of  soiling,  the  land  is  not  suffered  to  mature  weeds. 
The  annuals  are  generally  killed  by  the  first  cutting,  and  if 
not,  always  by  the  second.  The  perennials  are  cut  before 
the  seed  forms,  thus  preventing  any  seed  ripening  to  grow 
new  plants;  and  as  all  the  successive  crops  are  cut  green, 
no  seed  can  mature.  The  soil  may  have  several  crops  of 
weed  seeds  in  it ;  but  whenever  they  come  to  the  surface 
and  grow,  the  first  cutting  kills  them.  Canada  thistles, 
being  cut  before  seeding,  are  soon  killed  ;  and  if  seed 
exists  in  the  soil,  the  new  crop  that  grows  after  plowing 
will  also  be  killed  before  seeding ;  and  a  few  years  will 
exterminate  them.  As  all  the  various  weeds  will  be  eaten 
when  cut  in  the  green,  succulent  state,  it  may  be  said  that 
the  weeds  will  pay  for  their  own  extermination. 

Fields  that  are  infested  with  the  worst  weeds  may  be 
selected  to  cultivate  a  few  years  in  soiling  crops,  and  thus 
rendered  clean.  Under  the  strict  soiling  system  no  plant 
could  grow,  the  seed  of  which  was  not  sown,  after  the  land 
once  became  clean.  The  white  daisy  and  plantain  are  even 
worse,  if  possible,  than  Canada  thistles,  but  frequent  plow- 
ings  and  cutting  before  seeding  will  end  these  also.  Soil- 
ing may  be  considered  the  only  feasible  system  of  ridding 
our  fields  of  weeds,  and  this  alone  would,  in  some  localities, 
render  it  profitable. 

How  TO  Introduce  Soiling. 

A  good  system  is  not  appropriate  for  all  farms.  A  farm 
turned  up  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  covered  with  rocks,  or 
a  newly-cleared  one,  covered  with  stumps,  is  not  adapted  to 


"206  FEEDIITG   AITIJIALS. 

soiling.  There  is  much  land  that  can  only  be  profitably  pas- 
tured. It  is  only  comparatively  level,  arable  land  that  permits 
the  introduction  of  soiling;  and  on  cheap,  level  western 
prairie,  where  labor  is  more  valuable  than  land,  soiling  will 
not  pay  till  land  rises  to  a  value  of  fifty  dollars  per  acre. 
This  system  may,  however,  be  partially  used  even  in  hilly 
Vermont.  Many  farms  have  some  very  rough  fields,  which 
can  only  be  pastured;  but  a  large  part  of  the  farm  being 
arable  and  fertile,  crops  may  very  profitably  be  grown  for 
partial  feeding  when  pastures  are  short.  These  farms,  with 
one-half  in  hill  pastures,  having  the  other  half  in  rich, 
alluvial  soil,  may  double  the  stock  kept,  by  using  one-fourth 
of  the  tillable  land  for  soiling  crops.  The  increase  in  stock 
Avill  so  increase  the  manure  as  to  double  the  winter  fodder, 
and  thus  carry  them  through  the  year.  In  this  way  many 
farms,  having  a  portion  of  soiling  land,  may  carry  a  larger 
stock  than  other  farms,  all  arable,  on  which  stock  is  only 
pastured.  But  we  do  not  advise  a  s\idden  change  from 
pasturing  to  soiling,  even  on  the  farm  best  adapted  to  it. 
It  requires  preparation  to  change  from  one  system  to  the 
other,  and  this  preparation  should  be  carefully  considered 
and  fully  made.  The  want  of  such  preparation  has  usually 
caused  great  disappointment ;  and  we  therefore  advise  that 
only  a  small  addition  should  be  made  to  the  stock  at  first, 
leaving  the  pasture  nearly  the  same,  but  providing  clover 
and  a  small  allowance  of  the  most  important  soiling  crops, 
thus  giving  the  stock  what  they  can  eat  besides  the  pasture, 
and  then  reducing  the  pasture  year  by  year,  as  the  new  sys- 
tem is  better  understood.  Dairymen  will  find  soiling  to 
grow  rapidly  in  their  confidence,  if  they  will  provide  this 
green  food  for  their  cows  at  evening  and  morning  in  the 
stable,  allowing  them  to  run  in  the  pasture  through  the 
day.  This  will  keep  the  pasture  in  good  condition;  and 
giving  the  cows  full  feed,  they  will  give  an  increased  yield 
of  milk  through  the  season.     They  will  soon  see  how  much 


WINTER   SOILI^s^^G.  ^7 

they  can  reduce  the  pasture,  and  liow  well  adapted  their 
fields  are  for  producing  green  crops.  Dairymen  are  better 
prepared  than  other  stock-feeders  to  introduce  this  system, 
from  the  practice  they  have  had  in  raising  and  feeding  fod- 
der-corn in  times  of  short  pasture.  The  change  may  be  so 
gradual  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  general  business  of  the 
farm,  and  whether  the  system  be  partial  or  full  soiling, 
there  will  be  no  disappointment. 

Winter  Soiling — Ensilage. 

France,  Germany,  and  some  other  portions  of  Europe, 
have  practiced  summer-soiling  for  more  than  a  century.  But, 
although  they  were  able  to  supply  their  cattle  and  other 
stock  with  green,  succulent  food  during  the  warm  season, 
yet  they  were  obliged  to  cure  grass  and  other  green  food  to 
be  given  during  the  winter  season.  This  seriously  checked 
the  growth  of  their  animals  and  also  added  to  the  expense 
of  keeping  them.  It  is  not  at  all  surprising  that  great 
effort  should  be  made  to  overcome  this  obstacle  to  steady 
growth.  They  could  raise  any  desired  amount  of  green 
food,  and  if  any  plan  could  be  invented  for  keeping  it  in  its 
succulent  condition,  soiling  could  be  continued  throughout 
the  year.  Some  parties,  who  desired  to  preserve  the  refuse 
beet-pulp  of  the  beet-sugar  works  for  future  feeding,  hit 
upon  the  plan  of  pitting  it  like  potatoes,  and  found  that  it 
could  be  preserved  in  this  way  for  many  months.  It  became 
evident  that  the  only  condition  necessary  was  to  exclude  the 
air,  to  prevent  fermentation.  That  principle  had  long 
become  familiar  in  the  preservation  of  perishable  fruits  in 
hermetically-sealed  cans.  The  only  thing  to  be  devised  was 
an  economical  plan  of  excluding  the  air.  The  pit  answered 
for  beet-pulp,  and  next  green  corn  was  pitted,  and  found  to 
come  out  with  only  a  moderate  amount  of  fermentation. 
Long  trenches  were  dug  in  dry  earth,  five  feet  wide  at  the 
bottom,  seven  feet  at  the  top,  five  feet  deep,  and  as  long 


208  FEEDiKG  AKIMAtiS. 

as  was  required  for  storage  of  the  green  corn.  The  green 
corn  was  at  first  placed  lengthwise  and  flat  in  the  trench, 
trodden  in  thoroughly,  carried  up  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground  three  or  four  feet,  and  straw  placed  over  the  top ; 
then  the  earth  thrown  out  of  the  trench  was  jmcked 
upon  this  green  corn,  and,  as  it  settled,  more  earth  was 
thrown  on  to  prevent  cracking  so  as  to  admit  the  air. 

These  rough  pits  were  found  to  preserve  the  fodder  with 
most  of  its  original  succulence,  and  although  more  fermen- 
tation had  occurred  than  was  desirable,  yet  cattle  ate  it 
greedily,  compared  with  what  they  did  hay.  This  mode 
was  continued  for  several  years  in  Germany,  and  was 
adopted  by  many  in  France.  It  soon  became  evident  that 
the  more  solidly  it  was  packed  into  the  pit  the  better  it  was 
preserved.  The  next  step  in  improvement  consisted  in  run- 
ning the  fodder  through  a  straw-cutter,  and  cutting  it  into 
short  lengths  of  half  an  inch  or  less.  In  tliis  state  it  packed 
much  more  solidly,  and  was  thus  rendered  less  penetrable 
by  air,  and  much  more  could  be  stored  in  the  same  space. 
When  put  up  in  this  way,  and  much  care  taken  to  preserve 
a  solid  crust  of  earth  over  it,  the  fodder  came  out  in  much 
better  condition,  frequently  only  undergoing  saccharine  fer- 
mentation. Even  this  rough  way  of  preserving  the  green 
food  was  considered  a  great  improvement  over  drying. 
But  a  most  important  advance  upon  this  system  has  been 
made  by  Mons.  A.  Goffart,  of  France.  He  desired  some- 
thing more  certain  and  uniform  in  its  operations  than  the 
covering  of  earth.  He  built  two  parallel  walls,  air-tight, 
and  as  far  apart  as  was  convenient — from  10  to  15  feet,  and 
8  to  12  feet  deep.  The  ensilage  is  packed  between  these 
walls  and  trodden  in  closely  to  the  top.  Wishing  to  get  rid 
of  the  earth,  which  was  liable  to  get  mixed  with  the  feed,  he 
hit  upon  a  cover  of  planks,  placed  across  the  silo,  fitting  to 
the  wall,  but  moving  down  as  the  body  of  the  green  ensi- 
lage settled.     To  keep  this  plank  cover  pressing  on  the  top, 


ENSILAGE.  209 

he  weighted  the  planks  with  about  500  pounds  to  the  square 
yard.  His  movable  weight-cover,  which  gave  continuous 
pressure  upon  the  green  ensilage,  and  thus  excluded  the 
air,  w^as  the  last  improvement  that  he  regards  as  insuring 
the  uniform  success  of  this  mode  of  preserving  green  fod- 
der. M.  Goffart  has  tested  this  system  so  thoroughly,  not 
only  as  to  its  success  in  preserving  the  quality  of  the  green 
food,  but  as  to  the  effect  of  the  ensilage  upon  the  health 
and  growth  of  hundreds  of  cattle,  and  so  many  other  most 
intelligent  French  farmers  have  verified  his  results,  that  we 
are  forced  to  regard  the  practicability  of  the  system  as 
established — that  all  the  soiling  crops  that  we  have  described 
may  be  preserved  in  silo,  at  just  the  point  in  their  growth 
when  they  are  most  succulent  and  nutritious — and  that 
these  green  foods  may  be  produced  upon  all  stock  farms  in 
the  settled  portions  of  the  country,  in  such  abundance, 
that  all  our  stock  may  be  fed  upon  the  most  succulent 
grasses  throughout  the  winter.  There  may  be  many  details 
in  the  system  yet  to  be  perfected  and  improved,  but  all  the 
important  facts  are  well  established,  and  their  probable 
effects  may  be  considered. 

1st.  This  discovery  continues  the  soiling  system  through- 
out the  year.  A  continuous  succession  of  green  food  may 
be  presented  to  our  cattle  and  other  stock  during  their 
whole  lives.  This  will  off'er  facilities  for  producing  a  much 
more  uniform  growth  in  all  our  stock.  It  simplifies  our 
feeding  operations,  and  when  fully  put  in  practice  will 
supersede  all  efforts  to  render  hay  and  other  coarse  fodder 
more  digestible  by  cooking.  The  succulence  of  ensilage  is 
greater  than  we  can  ever  hope  to  produce  by  cooking.  Its 
digestibility  must  be  very  similar  to  grass  eaten  in  pasture, 
provided  it  is  preserved  at  a  proper  stage  of  its  growth. 

2dly.  This  system  will  enable  farmers  to  carry  more 
stock  with  less  grain,  and  thus  save  much  labor  in  cultiva- 
tion of  grain  crops  intended  as  food  for  stock.     The  good 


210  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

book  says  '^all  flesh  is  grass;"  and  feeders  often  find  that 
cattle  take  on  flesh  as  rapidly  on  fresh  pasture-grasses  as 
under  grain-feeding.  Grain  makes  the  flesh  of  cattle  more 
solid  than  that  from  grass;  and  grain  will  always  be  an  im- 
portant addition  in  meat  and  milk  production,  but  the 
proportion  of  it  profitably  used  will  be  much  less  in  winter- 
feeding  on  mixed  ensilage  than  on  hay. 

3dly.  Winter-feeding  upon  ensilage  will  require  less 
labor  than  the  old  system.  The  labor  of  cutting  crops 
green  and  storing  in  silo  will  be  less  than  that  now 
bestowed  on  cutting,  curing  and  storing  in  the  barn.  And, 
whereas  a  very  large  percentage  of  hay  is  badly  damaged 
by  storms  and  over-ripening,  green  fodder  may  always  be 
cut  and  properly  stored  in  the  silo  during  the  worst  seasons. 
It  is  found  that  all  the  succulence  and  moisture  are  required 
to  preserve  the  green  food  in  the  best  condition.  It  is  ready 
to  feed  directly  from  the  silo  without  any  preparation,  it 
having  been  cut  into  short  lengths  when  stored.  This  sys- 
tem insures  the  best  preparation  of  the  food,  requiring  the 
least  labor  in  its  mastication,  because,  in  order  to  preserve 
it  best,  it  must  be  cut  into  half-inch  lengths,  so  as  to  pack 
most  soMdly  and  exclude  air. 

4thly.  The  silos  in  which  to  store  green  food  will  cost 
less  than  barns  to  store  hay,  as  it  is  compressed  so  solidly 
as  to  occupy  much  less  space.  A  cubic  foot  of  ensilage 
weighs  about  45  pounds,  or  about  12  tons  of  ensilage  would 
only  occupy  the  space  of  one  ton  of  hay;  but  as  the  ensi- 
lage will  contain  much  more  water,  two  and  a  half  tons  of 
this  will  only  equal  one  ton  of  hay  in  dry  food ;  yet  the 
ensilage  will  still  occupy  only  one-fourth  of  the  space 
accorded  to  dry  food. 

othly.  This  system  will  be  applicable  to  the  whole  coun- 
try— may  be  as  successful  in  Maine  as  in  Virginia.  Per- 
haps it  will  be  more  prized  in  the  colder  States,  as  the 


ENSILAGE.  211 

season  of  winter-feeding  is  there  much  longer  and  more 
trying  to  the  constitution  of  the  animals. 

In  the  colder  Northern  States  cattle  make  excellent  prog- 
ress on  good  pasture,  but  much  of  this  is  lost  during  the 
long,  cold  winter,  when  they  are  confined  to  hay  and  coarse 
fodder.  Grain  is  there  often  thought  too  expensive  for 
feeding  growing  cattle,  but  with  ensilage,  these  cattle,  in 
warm  stables,  will  make  a  summer  growth  all  the  year 
round.  This  system  put  in  active  operation,  would  have  a 
remarkable  influence  on  the  production  of  meat,  milk  and 
wool,  in  the  Middle  and  New  England  States.  These 
States  ould  then  fully  supply  the  home  demand  for  meat. 
Our  exports  of  animal  products  amounted,  for  the  year  1881, 
to  nearly  1175,000,000.  These  exports  are  constantly  increas- 
ing, and  as  we  improve  our  processes  of  preserving  meats,  and 
our  system  of  transportation  of  live  animals  and  dressed 
carcasses  (the  latter  is  likely  to  be  the  principal  mode  of 
transportation  in  the  future),  the  demand  is  likely  to 
grow  in  proportion  to  our  facilities.  We  believe  the  most 
profitable  part  of  our  farming  for  the  next  fifty  years  will 
be  in  the  production  of  meat,  milk  and  wool.  An  increase 
in  animal  products  means  an  improvement  in  our  system  of 
farming — an  increase  in  the  value  of  our  landed  property. 
Grain-raising,  without  stock,  means  a  constantly  deteriora- 
ting soil,  and  an  inevitable  impoverishment  of  our  resources. 
This  system  of  ensilage  may  be  made  the  means  of  carry- 
ing a  large  proportion  of  stock  in  grain-raising  States,  as 
every  acre  properly  treated  under  this  system  will  represent, 
for  cattle-feeding,  three  acres  under  the  old  system.  The 
increase  of  manure  will  give  a  larger  yield  of  grain  on  two- 
thirds  the  number  of  acres.  The  system  of  soiling,  with 
the  addition  of  ensilage  for  winter-feeding,  is  rounded  out 
into  full  proportions,  and  gives  a  hundred-acre  farmer  as 
great  a  capacity  for  keeping  stock  as  the  three-hundred-acre 
farmer  heretofore. 


212  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

SlLOS. 

We  have  above  spoken  of  the  recent  improvements  of 
this  system  of  ensilage,  and  some  have  regarded  it  as  a  re- 
cent discovery,  but  it  had  been  practiced  by  the  Austro- 
Iliingarian  farmers,  in  their  rude  way,  more  than  50  years 
before  the  French  had  turned  their  attention  to  it.  The 
Hungarians  pitted  their  green  fodder  in  the  earth.  Ac- 
cording to  some  of  the  early  Roman  agricultural  writers, 
grain  and  fodder  were  pitted  by  the  farmers  of  Italy  at  an 
early  period  of  history.  The  principle  involved  in  the  en- 
silage system  is,  therefore,  far  from  being  new.  The  Hun- 
garian and  German  silo  was  simply  a  pit  dug  in  a  dry  place 
in  the  earth,  8  to  10  feet  wide  at  the  top,  6  to  8  feet  at  the 
bottom,  6  to  8  feet  deep,  and  as  long  as  suited  the  conven- 
ience of  the  makers. 

The  green  fodder,  rye,  rape,  vetch,  clover,  seradella,  or 
grass,  etc.,  was  laid  in  the  pit,  crosswise,  trodden  firmly, 
and  pitted  three  or  four  feet  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  like  the  cone  of  a  potato  heap.  This  top  was 
covered  with  straw,  leaves  or  brush,  and  the  earth  thrown 
from  the  pit  was  banked  upon  and  over  the  top  to  the 
depth  of  18  to  24  inches.  This  covering  of  earth  was  com- 
pacted so  firmly  as  to  exclude  the  air,  furnished  a  heavy 
cover  which  settled  with  the  fodder  in  the  pit ;  but  in  set- 
tling it  was  liable  to  crack  and  let  in  the  air,  so  that  fre- 
quent attention  was  required  to  fill  these  cracks  and  com- 
press the  earth.  So  the  improvements  made  by  Gofiart 
were  the  natural  growth  from  the  primitive  method.  We 
mention  these  facts  rather  to  strengthen  the  impression  oi 
merit  in  the  system,  for,  having  been  in  practical  use  for  a 
thousand  or  more  years,  the  question  of  economic  value  in 
the  preserved  fodder  must  be  considered  as  settled. 

The  present  form  of  silo  is  a  very  great  improvement 
upon  the  earth  silo,  and  the  ensilage  must  be  correspond- 


SILOS.  213 

ingly  improved.  When  the  air-tight  wall  silo  with  its  con- 
stant pressure  cover  is  operated  expertly,  the  green  food 
should  not  pass  beyond  the  saccharine  stage  of  fermentation, 
and  when  taken  from  the  silo  and  exposed  to  the  air,  the 
alcoholic  fermentation  soon  begins.  In  this  state  the  en- 
silage (preserved  fodder)  is  in  its  best  condition  for  feeding 
and  its  food  value  is  probably  equal  to  what  it  was  at  the 
time  of  packing  in  the  silo — that  is,  its  changes  have  im- 
proved its  digestibility  as  much  as  fermentation  has  reduced 
its  weight  of  dry  substance.  Some  have  figured  a  consider- 
able increase  in  food  value,  but  this  would  be  equivalent  to 
the  production  of  something  from  nothing,  except  so  far  as 
an  increase  in  digestibility  might  occur  from  the  chemical 
action  of  fermentation. 

Pla:n^  of  Silo. 

That  our  readers  may  get  a  clear  idea  of  the  plan  of 
building  silos,  in  convenient  form,  of  concrete  or  other 
durable  material,  we  give  the  outline  of  a  ground  plan  for 
a  triple  silo — the  inside  of  each  being  IG  feet  wide  by  32 
feet  long  and  16  feet  deep. 

We  give  plan  for  triple  silo  because  many  farms  require 
storage  of  this  capacity  (about  185  tons  for  each  silo,  or 
555  tons),  and  if  less  storage  is  needed  two  may  be  built, 
or  one,  if  that  is  ;ill  that  is  needed.  If  more  capacity  than 
one  is  required  and  less  than  two  of  this  size,  then  it  would 
be  better  to  build  two  side  by  side  25  feet  long,  rather  than 
to  build  one  50  feet  long.  The  latter  would  take  23  feet 
more  in  length  of  wall ;  besides,  the  two  silos  side  by  side 
would  be  more  convenient,  the  doors  being  near  together. 
The  roof  on  this  ground  plan  would  span  the  silos  length- 
wise, and  another  silo  could  be  added  at  any  time,  requir- 
ing only  one  side,  or  long  wall,  and  two  end  walls,  and  the 
roof  can  be  extended  over  the  new  silo.  This  plan,  then, 
permits  one  to  be  built  as  a   trial  silo,  and  others  to  be 


214 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


added  at  any  time  without  any  change  of  plan.  This  form 
of  silo  may  be  placed  with  the  door  end  near  the  drive- 
way into  the  basement  stable.  A  track  laid  from  the  silo 
door  to  and  along  the  center  of  the  feeding-floor  of  the 
stable,  on  which  a  car  can  be  rnn  to  the  silo  and  the  ensi- 
lage delivered  to  the  animals  on  either  side  of  the  floor. 
This  car  may  hold  one  feed  for  the  whole  stock,  and  be 
moved  on  the  track  by  one  man. 


i]]llHllll!llllll!llllJ^ 


Fifj.  16.— Triple  Silo. 
These  silos  are  intended  to  be  built  of  concrete,  and  the 
plan  shows  how  the  v/alls  are  constructed.  S  S  S  S  re-p- 
resent  the  standards — 3  x  6-inch  scantling — placed  inside 
the  proposed  walls,  edges  to  the  wall,  making  them  stifler 
in  holding  the  plank  boxing.  These  standards  are  placed 
mostly  in  pairs  (one  on  each  side  of  the  wall)  and  three 
inches  further  apart  than  the  wall  is  to  be  thick,  and  reach- 
ing some  inches  above  tlie  top  of  the  intended  wall — 17 
feet  long  for  a  wall  16  feet  high.  The  pairs  of  standards 
are  placed  about  8  feet  apart.  The  boxing  planks  (repre- 
sented by  the  lines  inside  of  the  standard)  may  most  con- 


BUILDIITG   THE   SILO.  215 

veniently  be  IM  inches  thick,  14  inches  wide  and  16  feet 
long,  except  those  on  the  outside  of  the  end  walls,  which 
must  be  17K  feet  long.  The  walls,  being  16  feet  high, 
should  be  16  inches  thick,  if  made  of  concrete.  Concrete 
walls  are  stronger  than  the  same  thickness  of  stone  wall, 
laid  by  a  mason.  The  doors  are  represented  by  the  letters 
d  d  d.    The  boxing  plank  extend  across  these  doors. 

Building  the  Silo. 

For  convenience  of  filling,  the  silo  may  be  sunk  half  its 
depth  or  more  in  the  earth,  where  the  situation  permits 
this  to  be  done  with  good  and  easy  drainage.  But  if  the 
soil  is  springy,  or  if  the  silo  is  to  be  sunk  in  slate  or  shale 
rock  which  permits  the  water  to  pass  freely  through  it,  so 
as  to  produce  a  pressure  of  water  on  the  bottom,  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  make  the  bottom  water-tight  without  cutting  a 
free  drain  12  inches  from  the  outside  of  the  wall  and  some 
inches  below  the  bottom,  so  as  to  conduct  the  water  around 
and  off.  It  is  better  not  to  go  deeper  in  any  case  than  can 
be  easily  drained.  It  is  also  most  convenient  not  to  have 
the  bottom  of  the  silo  below  the  level  of  the  feeding  floor 
of  the  basement  stable,  unless  the  ensilage  is  to  be  taken 
out  at  the  toji,  run  into  the  upper  floor  of  the  barn  and 
dumped  through  upon  the  feeding  floor  of  the  basement 
where  the  stock  is  kept.  If  two  to  four  feet  are  excavated, 
this  earth  can  be  used  to  bank  up  on  the  back  end  of  the 
silos  for  an  elevated  drive-way  for  setting  the  cutter  or  for 
delivering  the  green  fodder.  The  excavation  should  be 
at  least  18  inches  beyond  the  proposed  wall  for  convenience 
of  working.  Having  got  the  bottom  leveled,  set  the  stand- 
ards 19  inches  apart  (this  will  give  a  space  between  the 
boxing  planks  of  16  inches),  care  being  taken  that  the 
edge  of  the  inside  standard  next  the  boxing  be  straight. 
To  hold  the  standards  firmly  in  place,  nail  a  lath  across 
the  under  ends  ;  this  will  prevent  them  from  spreading. 


216  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

leaving  the  lath  under  the  wall  and  offering  no  obstruction 
to  the  removal  of  the  standards  after  the  wall  is  built. 
Now  a  bracket  should  be  nailed  across  the  top  and  the  pair 
of  standards  set  accurately  plumb  on  the  inside  edge  and 
solidly  stay-lathed  in  that  position.  It  is  well  to  stay-lath 
across  the  top  of  the  silo  from  standard  to  standard  besides 
bracing  from  the  outside;  for  it  is  of  the  utmost  import- 
ance that  the  standards  should  not  move,  as  that  will 
throw  the  wall  out  of  plumb.  When  the  standards  are  all 
set  about  the  proposed  walls,  and  the  boxing  planks  are  all 
placed,  we  are  ready  for 

Preparing  the  Concrete. 

The  first  tier  on  the  bottom  of  the  wall  should  be  made 
wholly  with  water-lime  concrete,  as  follows:  Mix  well  one 
part  of  Akron  or  Eosendale  cement  with  three  parts  of 
fine  sand,  while  dry.  You  may  now  mix  in  also  three  or 
four  parts  of  clean  gravel ;  now  mix  into  thin  mortar  and 
place  a  layer  of  this  mortar,  two  or  three  inches  thick,  in 
the  bottom  of  the  wall-box,  and  if  you  have  cobble  or 
rough  stones,  or  any  irregular  stones  picked  from  the  field, 
bed  these  in  the  mortar,  taking  care  not  to  let  them  come 
quite  out  to  the  boxing  plank.  Use  all  the  stone  you  can 
get  in,  taking  care  to  have  a  layer  of  mortar  between  them; 
tamp  it  all  down  solid  so  as  to  have  no  spaces  in  the  wall. 
Fill  the  boxing  to  the  top,  using  a  layer  of  mortar  and  a 
layer  of  stone  alternately. 

For  the  next  layer  of  wall,  and  all  above,  if  you  desire  to 
use  some  quick-lime,  which  is  cheaper,  then  mix  as  follows: 
One  part  of  cement  with  six  of  fine  sand,  while  dry.  Mix 
in  four  parts  of  gravel  as  before.  Have  a  vat  of  quick- 
lime, well  slaked  under  water,  standing  near,  and  use  this 
thin  milk  of  lime  to  wet  up  and  mix  into  mortar  the  water- 
lime,  sand  and  gravel.  Make  a  calculation  so  as  to  get 
about  one  part  of  dry  quick-lime  to  eight  of  sand  used. 


PREPARING  THE   COKCRETE.  217 

Being  mixed  up  into  thin  mortar,  it  will  not  be  difficult  to 
get  the  milk  of  quick-lime  mixed  thoroughly  through  the 
mass  of  mortar.  The  quick-lime  should  be  slaked  under 
water  several  days  before  using.  This  quick-lime  will  im- 
prove the  walls  and  when  hard  will  be  water-proof.  This 
will  give,  if  stones  are  also  used,  about  one  part  of  water- 
lime  to  12  or  14  of  sand,  gravel  and  stone,  and  one  of 
quick-lime  to  about  15  of  other  materials.  This  wall  will 
be  cheaper  than  one  built  wholly  with  water-lime. 

But  if  the  silo  is  sunk  in  the  earth,  it  is  better  to  use 
only  water-lime,  to  12  inches  above  the  ground,  although 
we  have  seen  such  mixed-lime  wall  stand  well  below 
ground;  yet  the  quick-lime  does  not  assist  in  standing 
moisture.  If  built  wholly  of  water-lime,  the  instructions 
for  the  first  layer  should  be  followed  in  all  the  other  layers. 
The  boxing  planks,  after  tlie  first  layer  has  become  hard, 
are  raised  just  12  inches,  leaving  a  lap  of  2  inches  on  the 
wall  below.  The  mortar  is  then  put  in  the  wall-box  and 
stone  bedded  in  as  before,  and  the  tiers  are  carried  up  in 
til  is  way  to  the  top.  The  standards  may  be  kept  from 
spreading  in  the  middle  by  having  a  movable  clamp 
hooked  across  some  feet  above  the  boxing. 

Plates  8  X  10  inches  are  placed  on  the  top  of  the  silo 
walls,  and  when  the  boxes  are  leveled  for  the  top  layers 
of  the  walls,  three-quarter-inch  bolts,  21  inches  long,  with 
screw  or  nut  on  the  upper  end  and  a  square  bend  on  the 
lower  end,  are  used.  Place  three  of  tliese  in  each  long 
wall,  one  in  the  center  of  the  wall  and  one  near  each  end, 
12  inches  from  the  end  wall.  Let  the  bolt  go  12  inches 
into  the  wall.  To  hold  these  bolts  while  filling  around 
them,  bore  a  hole  in  a  narrow  strip  of  board  and  tack  this 
board  across  the  top  of  the  box  just  where  the  bolt  is  to  be 
placed,  the  upper  end  of  the  bolt  being  put  through  the 
hole  in  the  board,  standing  perpendicularly  and  8M  inches 
above  the  box,  so  as  to  take  the  plate.  These  bolts  will 
10 


218  FEEDING  ANIMALS. 

be  in  line,  so  that  holes  may  easily  be  bored  in  the  plates 
to  receive  them  ;  or,  instead  of  one  plate  8  x  10  inches,  it 
is  better  to  place  two  8x8  plates  side. by  side,  and  both 
just  reach  across  the  wall.  In  this  case  the  bolts  in  the 
wall  come  between  the  two  sticks.  In  this  case  the  two 
plates  are  bolted  together  at  each  end  and  in  the  middle. 

These  plates  are  framed  for  short  posts  4  or  5  feet  long, 
upon  which  6  x  6-inch  plates  are  placed  for  the  roof  to  rest 
upon.  This  space  between  the  top  of  the  wall  and  the 
roof  is  usually  occupied  by  swinging  doors,  which  are 
closed  after  the  silo  is  filled,  but  it  may  all  be  boarded  up 
except  such  doors  as  are  wanted  for  filling  the  silo ;  and 
when  it  is  desired  to  get  as  much  as  possible  into  the  silo, 
temporary  boarding  is  carried  above  the  wall  even  with  the 
inside  and  the  ensilage  is  piled  above  the  wall  two  or  three 
feet  before  the  weighted  cover  is  put  oil,  and  the  com- 
pressed ensilage  only  sinks  a  very  little  below  the  top  of 
the  wall. 

The  inside  of  the  walls  of  the  silo  is  given  an  even  coat 
of  cement,  thoroughly  troweled  dow^n.  The  bottom  is  also 
cemented  so  as  to  make  the  whole  air  and  water-tight. 
And  should  it  be  desired  to  give  a  sandstone  color  to  the 
outside  wall,  this  can  be  done  by  mixing  one-fiftieth  part 
of  oxide  of  iron  with  the  cement  and  plaster  the  outside. 
The  doors  should  be  double,  one  hung  inside  and  the  other 
outside.  The  inside  door  should  be  hung  so  as  to  shut 
jeven  with  the  inside  wall,  be  in  two  parts,  and  swing  out. 
Felting  should  be  placed  on  the  jams,  so  that  the  inside 
doors  will  shut  air-tight.  The  outside  door  should  be  made 
in  three  parts,  fastened  together  with  hinges,  the  upper 
part  only  10  inches  wide,  and  should  be  fitted  to  the  out- 
side jams  of  the  door  so  as  to  be  screwed  fast,  one  section 
at  a  time,  beginning  with  the  lower  section.  The  spax3e 
between  the  two  doors  should  be  filled  with  sawdust, 
packed  in,  and  the  upper  section  is  so  narrow  that  the 


ENSILAGE   IN"   UNITED   STATES.  ^19 

sawdust  can  be  packed  closely  to  the  top,  and  thus  make 
the  doorway  air-tight.  The  concrete  wall  should  be  built 
for  10  cents  per  cubic  foot,  and  the  silo  need  not  cost 
over  $1.50  per  ton  capacity. 

Pkogress  of  Ensilage  in  United  States. 

Having  considered  the  rise  and  progress  of  this  system 
in  Europe,  let  us  see  what  progress  it  is  making  in  this 
country.  Mr.  Francis  Morris,  of  Maryland,  some  six 
years  ago  began  pitting  green  corn  in  the  German  fashion, 
and  feeding  upon  ensilage  for  a  short  time  in  winter  some 
300  head  of  cattle.  His  was  green  corn  ensilage  only,  and 
his  report  was  very  favorable  to  its  economy.  He  has 
continued  this  practice  up  to  the  present,  and  still  gives 
favorable  reports.  Perhaps  Mr.  0.  B.  Potter,  of  Sing  Sing, 
N.  Y.,  was  the  first  in  this  country  to  build  a  masonry  silo, 
and  he  began  to  preserve  corn  ensilage  about  1877,  using  a 
covering  of  earth  to  compress  the  ensilage.  His  ensilage' 
progressed  farther  in  fermentation  than  is  generally  ap- 
proved, but  still  was  found,  as  he  reports,  a  very  economical 
food  for  stock.  He  has  since  wisely  used  clover  to  ensilage 
with  corn,  so  as  to  furnish  a  better-balanced  ration  than 
corn  alone,  and  after  some  two  years'  trial  gives  a  favorable 
report.  His  earth  covering  does  not  so  eflfectually  exclude 
the  air  as  the  weighed  plank  covering. 

In  1879  Dr.  J.  M.  Bailey,  of  Billerica,  Mass.,  built  the 
first  double  silo  of  concrete  masonry,  and  stored  about  125 
tons  of  corn  ensilage,  which,  although  somewhat  belated 
in  storing,  gave  him  much  satisfaction  in  feeding.  His 
report  stimulated  inquiry  and  experiment  in  the  new 
process. 

At  the  beginning  of  1880  this  process  was  much  discussed 
by  the  agricultural  press,  and  the  result  was  the  building 
of  some  fifty  or  more  silos  in  different  parts  of  the  country, 
most  of  them  substantial,  and  many  of  them  in  the  most 


220  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

durable  form.  This  was  most  remarkable  progress  for  a 
new  system  to  make  in  a  single  season.  Probably  8,000 
tons  of  corn  ensilage  were  preserved.  The  reports  from 
these  various  experiments  were  made  to  the  agricultural 
papers  during  the  next  six  months,  nearly  all  of  them 
favorable,  many  of  them  very  enthusiastic,  as  to  its  econ- 
omy and  value.  Some  very  extravagant  estimates  were 
made  as  to  the  tons  of  corn  raised  upon  an  acre,  but  these 
estimates  were  soon  reduced  to  solid  fact  by  the  measure- 
ment of  the  compressed  contents  of  the  crops  in  the  silos. 
Forty-six  pounds  Avere  found  to  be  the  Aveight  of  a  cubic  foot 
of  ensilage  after  compression  under  500  pounds  to  the  square 
yard,  and  the  contents  of  the  silo  were  easily  measured, 
and  thus  the  yield  per  acre  determined.  The  yields  noted 
ranged  from  20  to  33  tons  of  green  corn  per  acre.  Thirty 
tons  may  be  considered  an  excellent  yield  of  green  corn. 
This  is  equal  to  about  five  tons  of  water-free  food,  wiiich 
'is  nearly  five  times  the  average  yield  of  dry  food  per  acre 
of  our  ordinary  meadows.  But  it  must  be  noted  that  the 
dry  food  of  corn  ensilage  is  not  as  valuable  per  weight  as 
that  from  meadow  grasses. 

An  Ensilage  Congress  was  held  in  New  York  in  January, 
1882,  attended  by  a  body  of  very  intelligent  men,  and 
reports  were  made  from  something  like  100  different 
experiments,  and  these  reports  were  almost  wholly  favor- 
able. It  is  true  the  experiments  were  few  of  them  carried 
out  with  as  much  accuracy  as  is  desirable,  but  the  general 
tenor  of  them  was  strong  evidence  of  the  probable  success 
of  the  system.  The  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  also  took 
the  testimony  of  about  one  hundred  persons  who  had  built 
and  filled  silos  and  fed  the  ensilage  to  the  close  of  1882, 
and  published  it  in  a  pamphlet  of  71  pages  ;  and  in  this 
the  reports  were  nearly  all  favorable  to  the  economy  of  the 
system.  The  Commissioner  says:  "There  is  hardly  a 
doubt  expressed  on  this  point — certainly  not  a  dissenting 
opinion." 


COST   OF   ENSILAGE.  221 

It  must  be  admitted  that  the  success  of  the  silos  built 
up  to  the  present  time,  in  tlie  ensilage  of  green  corn,  has 
been  very  remarkable,  and  has  given  this  new  system  a 
respectable  standing  in  American  agriculture ;  but  the 
tinal  verdict  upon  the  system  can  only  be  given  when  it 
shall  be  applied  practically  to  the  preservation  of  our 
meadow  grasses,  and  thus  prove  itself  worthy  of  being 
considered  a  system  in  stock  feeding. 

Cost  of  Ensilage. 

Mr.  August  Goffart  states  that  he  is  able  to  take  the 
corn  growing  in  a  field,  cut  it,  haul  it  to  the  silo,  run  it 
through  the  cutter,  pack  and  cover  it  in  th  silo,  for  one 
franc  per  ton — a  little  less  than  20  cents.  This  cannot  be 
done  in  this  country,  because  our  labor  wages  are  more 
than  double  those  in  France.  What,  then,  is  the  whole 
cost  of  producing  and  ensilaging  one  ton  of  corn?  Whit- 
man &  Burrell  estimate  it  at  80  cents  per  ton.  Mr.  Avery 
estimates  the  cost  of  harvesting,  hauling,  running  through 
a  cutter,  packing  in  a  silo  and  covering  at  $200  for  300 
tons,  or  66  cents  per  ton.  Dr.  Tanner,  of  Orange  County, 
N.  Y.,  estimates  the  cost  of  harvesting  and  putting  in  the 
silo  complete  150  tons  at  75  cents  per  ton.  Mr.  Chafiee, 
of  the  same  county,  who  put  up  ensilage  for  30  cows, 
estimates  the  whole  cost  of  raising  corn  and  storing  in  the 
silo  at  82  per  ton,  and  this  he  considers  very  cheap  feed. 
Tlie  whole  cost  of  raising  corn  and  putting  it  in  the  silo 
lias  been  estimated  by  some  half  dozen  others  at  from  81 
to  82  per  ton.  If  Ave  take  the  latter  figure  as  approxi- 
mating to  the  real  cost,  and  if  we  estimate  three  tons  of 
Mi'operly-kept  corn  ensilage  as  equal  in  feeding  value  to  one 
toil  of  good  hay,  then  we  find  it  as  cheap  as  hay  at  $6  per 
ton  in  the  barn. 

But  the  great  advantage  to  the  small  farmer  in  corn 
c:i silage  is,  that  he  may  produce  as  much  cattle  food  upon 


222  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

one  acre  of  corn  as  upon  four  to  six  acres  in  meadow ;  j^et 
the  drawback  to  this  view  is,  that  the  meadow  produces  a 
complete  cattle  food,  Avhilst  corn  is  not  a  complete  food, 
but  must  be  fed  with  other  nitrogenous  food  to  obtain  its 
full  value. 

The  conclusion,  then,  must  be  that  all  the  grasses,  in- 
cluding corn,  supplemented  by  the  clovers  and  other  legu- 
minous plants,  must  go  into  the  silo  together,  and  these 
furnish  complete  rations  for  the  production  of  meat,  milk 
and  wool.  The  labor  bestowed  per  ton  in  ensilaging  the 
grasses  and  grains,  in  the  more  succulent  state,  will  be 
even  less  than  for  corn,  because  the  former  can  be  more 
easily  cut  by  the  mowing-machine  and  handled  by  the 
horse-rake  and  hay-loader,  or  even  with  the  fork. 

It  is  also  quite  probable  that  the  grasses,  in  the  fit  con- 
dition for  ensilaging,  may  be  put  in  the  silo  with  less  labor 
than  they  can  be  cured  and  put  in  the  barn. 

The  larger  digestibility  of  succulent  grass  over  that  of 
cured  hay  will  certainly  be  an  ample  remuneration  for  this 
new  method  of  preserving  it.  It  is  quite  true,  however, 
that  by  some  small  German  experiments  it  appears  that 
grass,  after  carefully  drying,  is  as  digestible  as  in  the  succu- 
lent condition;  but  when  these  experimenters  seek  to  gen- 
eralize from  these  few  and  exceptional  cases,  founding  upon 
them  a  general  axiom  that  green  food  loses  none  of  its 
digestibility  by  drying,  let  us  oppose  to  this  the  great  gen- 
eral fact  that  cattle  grow  and  fatten  rapidly  and  profitably 
upon  the  succulent  grasses,  but  cannot  be  profitably  fat- 
tened upon  the  dried  grasses  or  hay.  Our  meadows  are 
usually  stocked  with  nearly  the  .  same  combination  of 
grasses  as  our  pastures,  but  who  would  assert  that  a  full 
ration  of  the  best  hay  would  produce  as  much  milk  or  lay 
on  as  much  flesh  as  the  best  pasture  ?  Such  facts,  open  to 
the  general  observation  of  all  intelligent  feeders,  are  not  to 
be  upset  by  a  German  experiment  upon  two  sheep ! 


a  complete  ratiok.  223 

Ensilage  as  a  Complete  Kation. 

Conceding  that  the  system  of  ensilage,  which  we  have 
described,  will  preserve  the  grasses  in  a  comparatively  fresh 
state,  how  shall  this  process  be  applied  to  general  stock- 
feeding,  making  a  complete  system  by  which  animals  may 
be  grown,  yield  milk,  and  be  fattened  ? 

Ensilage,  as  generally  discussed  in  this  country,  has  been 
used  to  signify  preserved  green  corn.  This  single  food  is 
quite  inadequate  to  the  complex  wants  of  the  animal  sys- 
tem. It  is  deficient  in  albuminoids  to  nourish  the  muscu- 
lar system,  and  deficient  in  the  phosphates  to  build  the 
bones.  Yet  it  is  a  very  valuable  ingredient  in  the  ration 
of  animals  because  of  the  large  weight  grown  upon  an 
acre,  and  because  it  is  relished  by  all  our  farm  animals. 
Some  of  the  grasses  and  clovers  are  rich  in  the  elements  in 
which  corn  is  deficient.  To  make  a  complete  ensilage  ra- 
tion only  requires  a  proper  combination  of  green  grasses 
and  clovers  with  green  corn.  Corn  having  the  least  propor- 
tion of  albuminoids,  can  seldom  be  used  for  more  than  half 
of  the  ration.  In  the  table  on  next  page  we  give  some  of 
the  most  important  of  the  green  foods  for  ensilaging,  and 
give  only  the  water  and  digestible  nutrients  in  each. 

There  are  many  other  grasses  not  mentioned  in  this 
table,  that  may  also  be  used ;  in  fact,  all  grasses,  in  their 
succulent  state,  make  the  very  best  ensilage,  and  all  succu- 
lent leguminous  plants,  may  be  ensilaged  with  profit;  but 
this  table  contains  all  the  plants  that  will  usually  be  chosen 
for  ensilage.  The  two  German  plants,  esparsette  and  sera- 
della,  have  not  been  grown  much  in  this  country,  but, 
from  the  few  trials,  bid  fair  to  be  valuable  ensilage  plants. 
From  this  list  a  proper  ration  can  be  combined  for  growing 
young  animals,  for  fattening  animals,  for  producing  milk, 
and  growing  wool.  No  one  can  doubt  that  these  green 
foods,  properly  combined,  contain  every  element  in  the 
right  proportion  for  all  purposes  of  stock  feeding.     Where 


224 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


these  grasses  are  found  in  perfection  in  pasture  the  feeder 
relies  upon  them  to  produce  the  highest  results. 


Fodder  Plants. 


Maize  fermented   in  silo;    average   of   11 

analyses 

Red  clover  ensilage 

Alsike  clover 

Winter  vetch 

Lucern  

Green  rape 

Sorghum 

Orchard  grass  

Fodder  peas , 

Cow  peas 

Esparsette 

Seradella 

Carrot  leaves 

Fodder  beet  leaves 

Ratal)aga  leaves 

Fodder  oats 

Timothy  grass 

Hungarian  grass    n  bloom 

Fodder  rye  in  head 

Upland  grass,  average 


82.0 
79.2 
82.0 
82.0 
75.3 
87.0 
77.3 
74.0 
81.0 
76.0 
80.0 
80.0 
82.2 
90.5 
88.4 
81.0 
70.0 
72.0 
76.0 
70.0 


Digestible 
Nutrients. 


1.00 

3.06 

2.46 

2.50 

3.50 

2.00 

1.60 

2.60 

2.48 

3.0 

2.1 

1.9 

2.2 

1.2 

1.5 

1.70 

2.10 

2.64 

1.90 

1.90 


10.19 
8.10 
8.21 
6.70 
9.10 
4.80 

11.90 

12.47 
7.8 
9.4 
8.0 
8.9 
7.0 
4.0 
5.1 
8.9  I 

16.0  j 

13.2 

12.0 

14.2  1 


0.54 

1.70 

0.49 

0.45 

0.40 

0.40 

0.30 

0.40 

0.40 

0.24 

0.30 

0.7 

0.5 

0.2 

0.3 

0.38 

0.50 

0.40 

0.40 

0.50 


11.4 
4.0 
3  9 
3  1 
2.9 
2.9 
7.4 
5.1 


4.1 
5.6 
3.8 
3.7 
3.9 
5.8 
8.2 
5.2 
6.8 
8.1 


0.16 
0.28 
0.20 
0.19 
0.25 
0.15 
0.19 
0.24 
0.19 
0.24 
0.18 
0.18 
0.18 
0.10 
0.12 
0.17 
0  28 
0.24 
0.21 
0.23 


If  we  examine  the  table,  we  find  that  100  pounds  of  green 
corn  would  give  only  one  pound  of  digestible  albuminoids. 
If  this  were  fed  to  a  cow  that  yielded  30  pounds  of  milk,  it 
would  be  insufficient  to  furnish  the  caseine  and  albumen  in 
the  milk  alone,  without  yielding  anything  to  supply  the 
waste  of  the  cow's  body.  The  German  experimenters  think 
they  have  shown  the  necessity  of  supplying  two  and  a  half 
pounds  of  digestible  albuminoids  per  day  to  a  cow  of  1,000 
pounds  weight,  in  milk.  This  would  require  250  pounds  of 
corn  ensilage  as  a  daily  ration — an  impossible  ration.  But 
if  we  take  from  the  table  65  pounds  of  clover  ensilage  and 
60  pounds  of  corn  ensilage,  it  will  give  a  complete  daily 
ration  for  a  cow  of  1,000  pounds  weight,  in  milk — 2.58 
pounds  albuminoids;    11.37  pounds  carbo-hydrates;    1.4 


ENSILAGE   AS   A    COMl>LETE    RATION.  225 

pound  fat.  This  is  a  large  excess  of  fat,  which  will  more 
than  make  up  the  deficiency  of  carbo-hydrates.  We  kno\y 
from  experiment  that  this  ration  will  produce  a  large  flow 
of  milk,  having  fed  it  in  just  this  proportion  early  in  Sep- 
tember, from  green  corn  and  second-crop  clover,  both  in 
excellent  condition  ;  but  being  fed  fresh,  it  contained  more 
water  than  that  given  in  the  table,  as  that  had  lost  water 
in  the  silo.  Yet  it  contained  liberal  nourishment  to  pro- 
duce a  full  flow  of  milk.  We  have  fed  this  combination 
in  several  different  years,  and  always  with  complete  satis- 
faction. 

Let  us  examine  red  clover  as  an  ensilage  crop.  As  will 
be  seen  by  the  table,  red  clover  is  the  most  nitrogenous  of 
the  leguminous  grasses  there  given,  except  lucerne  or  alfalfa, 
and  this  latter  has  not  been  cultivated  to  any  consider- 
able extent  except  in  California.  A  full  crop  of  green 
clover  weighs  more  than  most  farmers  suppose.  The  author 
has  fed  many  acres  of  red  clover  for  soiling,  and  carefully 
weighed  the  product  of  an  acre  in  different  seasons.  Ten 
tons  have  been  found  only  a  good  crop  in  a  favorable 
season,  and  sometimes  12  tons  have  been  weighed  from  an 
acre  at  the  first  cutting.  Twenty  tons  may  be  taken  from 
an  acre  at  three  cuttings  in  the  most  favorable  seasons. 
Lawes'  and  Gilbert's  experiments  with  different  fertilizers 
for  clover,  produced  from  fourteen  to  eighteen  gross  tons 
of  green  clover  upon  an  acre  at  one  cutting,  the  latter  yield 
being  equal  to  a  little  over  20  American  tons.  And  as  a  ton 
of  clover  is  worth  about  two  tons  of  fodder-corn,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  clover  crop  may  be  quite  as  profitable  for 
ensilage  as  corn.  It  can  be  cut  and  ensilaged  at  a  less  price 
per  ton  than  corn  can  be  grown  and  ensilaged.  If,  then, 
we  estimate  the  specially  raised  clover  crop,  in  two  cuttings, 
to  produce  15  tons  per  acre,  this  would  give  a  ration  of  Go 
pounds  per  day  for  461  days,  and  it  would  take  half  an  acre 
of  good  corn  to  produce  the  62  pounds  of  corn  per  day — 


226  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

this  is  equivalent  to  keeping  a  1,000-iDound  cow  on  a  full 
ration  of  clover  and  corn  308  days  from  the  product  of  one 
acre.  This  Avould  be  the  full  milking  season  of  ten  months, 
and  ought  to  produce  an  average  of  6,000  pounds  of  milk. 
In  this  case  the  acre  produces  everything  the  cow  consumes, 
and  this  is  certainly  a  cheap  production  of  milk. 

The  same  ^proportional  ration  may  be  combined  of  alsike 
clover,  orchard  grass,  Hungarian  grass,  or  winter  vetch 
and  corn,  when  these  shall  all  be  put  in  the  silo.  Fodder 
rye  and  clover,  50  pounds  of  each,  will  furnish  a  complete 
ration.  One  hundred  and  twenty-five  i-)ounds  of  peas  and 
oats  ensilaged  together,  will  give  a  complete  ration.  So, 
likewise,  will  100  pounds  of  timothy  and  Ilungarian  grass, 
or  125  pounds  of  sorghum  and  orchard  grass.  The  reader 
will  see  that  an  almost  endless  combination  may  be  made 
from  this  table,  giving  the  requisite  ingredients  for  a  com- 
plete ration. 

If,  then,  it  is  conceded,  and  the  proofs  are  beyond  dis- 
pute, that  these  green  foods  may  be  preserved  in  silo  in  a 
fit  condition  for  the  production  of  milk,  meat  and  wool, 
the  farmer  may  feed  stock  w^ithout  the  use  of  grain,  and 
thus  make  his  farm  self-supporting.  In  this  way  the  sys- 
tem of  ensilage  may  enable  the  stock  farmer  to  continue 
succulent  food  to  his  animals  throughout  the  year. 

Ensilage  Crops. 

The  same  crops  are  as  appropriate  for  ensilage  as  for 
soiling.  But  as  the  crops  raised  for  the  silo  should  be  suf- 
ficient for  the  purpose  intended,  and  cannot  be  assisted  by 
partial  pasture,  great  care  should  be  given  to  their  cultiva- 
tion, and  a  sufficient  amount  of  land  devoted  to  them  to 
produce  the  amount  required.  A  rational  calculation  for 
this  purpose  should  be  made,  based  upon  45  lbs.  as  the 
weight  of  each  cubic  foot  which  the  silo  contains.  This 
will  render  it  easy  to  estimate  the  number  of  tons  of  green 


EN"SiLAGli]   CROPS.  227 

crop  required  to  fill  the  silo.  But  what  shall  be  the  esti- 
mate of  thb  expected  weight  of  corn  per  acre,  of  rye, 
clover,  millet,  etc.?  It  is  well  to  strive  for  a  large  yield  by 
the  best  management  of  the  land  and  seed;  but  it  is  neces- 
sary to  make  a  liberal  allowance  of  land  for  ensilage  crops 
to  meet  unexpectedly-short  yields.  In  a  large  proportion 
of  silos  yet  built  they  have  proved  too  large  for  the  crop 
intended  to  fill  them.  This  comes  from  overestimating 
the  probable  crop  from  ordinary  cultivation.  They  have 
expected  to  obtain  the  largest  crop  with  the  ordinary 
amount  of  manure  and  labor.  It  is  quite  commendable  to 
strive  for  the  largest  crops  by  the  best  means,  but  a  con- 
siderable allowance  should  be  made  for  an  adverse  season, 
and  another  considerable  allowance  made  for  the  liability 
to  overestimate  crojos.  The  silo  makes  no  loose  estimate 
of  a  green  crop  put  into  it,  but  weighs  it  accurately 
according  to  the  compression.  Corn  requires  about  100 
lbs.  pressure  to  the  square  foot  to  give  a  weight  of  45  lbs. 
to  the  cubic  foot  of  ensilage.  The  ordinary  grasses  will 
pack  somewhat  solider  and  give  48  lbs.  to  the  cubic  foot 
after  compression  under  that  weight. 

The  best  method  of  raising  corn  for  ensilage  is  to  plant 
3G  to  42  inches  apart  and  cultivate  it  as  for  a  regular  field- 
crop.  Corn  is  a  rank  feeder,  and  the  land  should  be  well 
prepared,  strongly  manured,  and  that  thoroughly  worked 
into  the  soil.  The  land,  if  old,  should  be  worked  fine  at 
least  8  inches  deep. 

Two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  green  stalks  per  rod  is 
a  fair  yield  of  corn,  or  20  tons  per  acre;  but  it  is  possible 
to  double  this  yield,  yet  this  figure  is  seldom  reached,  and 
any  ordinary  caculation,  based  upon  this  yield  for  filling  a 
silo,  will  come  to  grievous  disappointment.  AVhen  a  party 
has  fairly  reached  this  figure  he  will  have  a  basis  for  it. 

Winter  Rye,  standing  thick  and  5  to  6  feet  high,  will 
often  roach  1'3  to  IG  tons  erreen  to  the  acre,  but  it  is  not 


228  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

safe  to  estimate  over  10  tons  for  a  carefully-raised  crop  in 
filling  silo.  A  good  crop  of  clover,  as  we  have  before 
stated,  should  reach  10  to  12  tons  green,  and  in  favorable 
seasons,  the  two  subsequent  cuttings  should  reach  8  to  10 
tons  more.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  this  means  a 
thick  stand  of  full-height  clover. 

Millet,  on  land  suited  to  it,  should  reach  10  or  more 
tons  per  acre,  at  blossoming. 

Pease  and  Oats,  in  blossom,  reach  about  the  same  fig- 
ure as  millet.  But  pease  may  properly  be  left,  in  cutting 
for  ensilage,  till  the  berry,  in  the  earliest  pods,  is  in  the 
dough  state.  Some  part  of  the  head  of  the  oats  will  also 
have  formed  the  seed,  at  this  point.  But  the  crop  must  not 
be  left  any  longer,  for  it  will  deteriorate  for  ensilage  rap- 
idly beyond  this  point,  and  if  there  is  any  probability  of 
being  delayed  the  crop  had  better  be  cut  when  the  pea  is 
in  blossom. 

Timothy  and  Late  Clover,  when  in  perfection,  will 
make  a  most  valuable  ensilage  crop — both  on  account  of 
the  large  amount  of  nutriment  on  an  acre,  and  because  it 
comes  at  a  favorable  time  for  laying  in  a  supply  of  green 
food  for  feeding  on  short  pasture.  On  land  adapted  to 
timothy  it  often  stands  five  feet  high  and  so  thick  as  to 
yield  24,000  to  28,000  pounds  on  an  acre  as  a  single  crop. 
The  Woburn  experiments  report  a  crop  of  timothy,  cut  in 
blossom,  that  yielded  40,000  pounds  on  an  acre.  This  is 
the  largest  crop  ever  reported..  Professor  Way  found 
timothy  the  most  nutritive  of  all  the  grasses  he  subjected 
to  analysis.  The  danger  with  timothy  is  in  cutting  it  too 
early  or  too  late.  The  bulb  on  the  lower  joint  requires  to 
mature  before  cutting  or  the  root  is  likely  to  die.  The 
most  appropriate  time  for  cutting  timothy  is  when  the  first 
dry  spot  appears  above  the  lower  joint.  This  indicates  the 
maturity  of  the  bulb,  and  it  occurs  while  in  blossom — 


ENSILAGE    CROPS.  220 

that  on  the  lower  part  of  the  spike  slightly  turned  brown, 
but  the  upper  part  still  purple.  It  should  now  be  cut 
immediately,  as  it  deteriorates  in  quality  very  rapidly. 
The  combined  crop  of  timothy  and  large  and  late  clover 
may  be  cultivated  to  produce  from  12  to  14  tons  upon  an 
acre,  and  each  ton  worth  about  two  tons  of  fodder-corn. 
So  that  this  crop  should  be  considered  quite  as  profitable 
as  the  corn  crop  for  ensilage,  and  when  the  labor  is  taken 
into  account,  much  more  profitable,  as  on  favorable  soil  it 
may  give  5  to  10  consecutive  crops  without  any  labor 
except  an  occasional  top-dressing.  This  crop,  allowing  60 
lbs.  per  head  per  day,  would  feed  a  cow  through  the  year. 
The  ensilagist  must,  however,  learn  to  raise  the  crop  before 
he  estimates  more  than  GO  per  cent,  of  these  figures. 

Sorghum  Cane  is  likely  to  prove  a  valuable  ensilaging 
crop.  Some  of  the  larger  varieties  yield  very  large  crops, 
will  produce  as  much  as  the  largest  corn ;  on  suitable  land 
25  tons  would  be  a  moderate  yield.  Should  cane  be  raised 
largely  for  sugar,  the  tops  and  leaves  will  make  excellent 
ensilage,  amounting  from  4  to  8  tons  per  acre,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  variety.  Containing  so  much  sugar  will 
increase  its  tendency  to  fermentation,  and  the  silo  will 
require  a  well-weighted  cover.  This  crop  will  have  one 
advantage  which  may  be  of  considerable  service — it  may 
be  cut  twice  in  a  season.  If  the  season  is  favorable  it  may 
be  cut  when  four  or  five  feet  high,  and  it  will  spring  up 
again  with  great  rapidity  and  mature  a  second  crop.  We 
have,  for  two  years,  pursued  this  plan  for  summer  soiling 
to  advantage. 

Storing  Several  Ensilage  Crops  Together. 

If  second  crop  clover  is  ensilaged  with  corn,  the  clover 
fills  the  spaces  between  the  coarser  pieces  of  corn,  makes  a 
solider  mass  than  corn  alone,  and  more  effectually  excludes 
the  air,  so  that  it  is  an  advantage  in  the  preservation  of  the 


030  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

ensilage;  and  besides,  it  will  furnish  the  more  nitrogenous 
addition  to  the  ration  which  corn  requires.  If  corn, 
millet  and  clover  are  ready  at  the  same  time,  they  may  be 
all  ensilaged  together  to  the  great  advantage  of  the  result- 
ing preserved  fodder.  This  combination  would  give  a 
complete  ration  for  milk  without  the  addition  of  grain. 

When  winter  rye  is  ensilaged  in  June,  it  may  most  prof- 
itably be  mingled  with  the  first  cutting  of  clover.  This 
will  furnish  an  admirable  ration  for  milk  through  August 
and  September,  when  pasture  is  short.  These  different 
crops  may  all  be  mixed  in  the  cutter  together  without 
requiring  any  extra  labor,  and  all  be  delivered  by  the  car- 
rier in  the  silo  together.  This  will  give  a  variety  in  the 
ration,  and  enable  the  thrifty  dairyman  to  feed  his  stock 
without  purchased  food. 

Summer  soiling  is  likely,  in  the  future,  to  be  so  closely 
connected  with  the  system  of  ensilage  that  the  soiling 
ration  will  come  from  the  silo  in  summer  as  well  as  winter. 
It  will  be  found  so  much  less  labor  to  cut  and  store  the 
green  food  all  at  one  time,  instead  of  cutting  one  day's 
feed  at  a  time;  and,  besides,  if  cut  and  stored  in  silo,  it  can 
Ije  done  when  the  crop  is  at  its  very  best,  instead  of  begin- 
ning before  it  is  quite  ready  and  continuing  to  cut  it  some 
time  beyond  its  best  condition.  It  will  probably  lessen  the 
labor  of  soiling  40  per  cent.  This  will  also  increase  the 
yield  of  the  crop,  and  in  case  of  clover  or  other  crop  hav- 
ing more  than  one  cutting,  give  more  time  for  the  growth 
of  the  second  crop. 

But  the  ensilage  system  must  be  expanded  beyond  the 
very  narrow  one  of  green-corn  preservation,  and  include 
every  green-fodder  crop — this  makes  every  complete  farm 
independent  of  the  productions  of  every  other  farm  in 
carrying  on  its  stock  operations.  It  will  often  be  profitable, 
when  short  of  ensilage  crops,  to  make  up  the  deficiency  by 
cutting  and  ensilaging  the  common  meadow  grasses  when 
in  blossom.     These  will  make  the  most  nutritious  ensilage. 


STORING   THE   CROP  IN   SILO.  231 

The  system  of  milk  production,  as  heretofore  carried  on, 
cannot  be  remunerative  without  grain-feeding  during  some 
portion  of  the  year,  whilst  under  the  general  system  of 
ensilage,  grain-feeding  will  not  be  necessary  for  the  profit- 
able production  of  meat,  milk  or  wool.  This  being  true, 
it  does  not  follow  that  grain  may  not  be  fed  at  a  profit, 
but  this  new  system  may  render  every  farm  independent  of 
grain  if  it  chooses  to  rely  upon  its  own  resources. 

Cutting  Crop  and  Filling  Silo. 

The  best  machine  for  cutting  corn  and  all  ensilage  crops, 
except,  perhaps,  clover  and  the  ordinary  grasses,  is  a 
strong,  self-rake  reaper,  laying  it  off  in  compact  gavels, 
which  may  be  bound  into  bundles  or  loaded  without  bind- 
ing. Corn  may  be  lifted  from  the  gavel  upon  the  wagon 
without  gathering  up  stones  or  sticks  to  injure  the  cutter. 
The  reaper  will  cut  an  acre  of  heavy  corn  as  quick  as  20 
men  with  ordinary  hand  corn-cutters.  If  the  corn  must 
be  cut  by  hand,  then  a  stout  corn-cradle  in  the  hands  of  a 
skillful  man  will  do  the  best  execution.  Three  teams,  with 
two  men  to  help  load  in  field,  will  haul  corn,  from  a  short 
distance,  as  fast  as  it  can  be  run  through  the  cutter.  And 
there  has  been  no  way  yet  devised  better  than  to  have  the 
corn  lifted  from  the  wagon  by  hand  upon  a  table  behind 
the  cutter,  and  have  it  passed  through  the  cutter  as  fast  as 
it  is  delivered  upon  the  table.  With  an  extra  w\agon  the 
teams  will  not  be  delayed  at  the  cutter. 

The  cutter  must  be  placed  so  that  the  cut  corn  or  grass 
will  fall  directly  into  the  silo,  or  be  run  from  the  cutter 
into  the  silo  by  a  carrier.  Carriers  are  very  easily  arranged 
by  belts  and  canvas  so  as  to  elevate  it  8  to  12  feet  as  fast 
as  it  can  be  cut. 

In  hauling  Avinter  rye,  millet,  peas,  oats,  etc.,  these  may 
be  lifted  upon  the  wagon  with  a  strong  gavel-fork,  without 


v32  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

danger  of  gathering  stone,  sticks,  etc.,  and  these  crops  can 
be  handled  very  rapidly — each  team  should  bring  to  the 
silo  20  tons  per  day  with  sufficient  help  in  loading. 

It  will  often  be  advisable,  when  a  large  crop  of  rye  ic 
cut  in  June  and  no  clover  to  cut  with  it,  that  early  miscel- 
laneous meadow  grasses  should  be  cut  so  as  to  mix  25  per 
cent,  of  these  with  the  rye  in  the  silo  to  improve  the 
ensilage. 

It  is  much  the  cheapest  and  best  to  mix  the  different 
qualities  in  the  same  silo  than  to  mix  the  ensilage  from 
different  silos. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  to  spread  the  ensilage  in  the 
silo  even  and  tread  as  even  as  may  be  whilst  filling,  and  the 
filling  should  go  on  continuously  every  day  till  finished, 
and  the  weighted  cover  should  be  put  on  at  once.  A  foot 
of  clean  straw  put  over  the  top  of  the  ensilage  will  assist 
in  preserving  it.  The  straw  will  spoil  and  leave  the  ensi- 
lage under  it  sweet. 


CATTLE-JFEEDIJ^G.  233 


CHAPTER   VIII, 


CATTLE-FEEDING. 


The  business  of  cattle-raisiug  in  the  United  States  has 
grown  to  very  great  proportions  within  the.  last  fifteen 
years — so  great  as  to  astonish  the  European  cattle-growers. 
The  typical  American  is  prone  to  reduce  every  business  to 
its  simplest  elements  ;  and  he  naturally  prefers  a  system  of 
cattle-feeding  in  which,  instead  of  the  expenditure  of 
labor  in  raising  cattle  food,  building  warm  barns  and  feed- 
ing the  cattle  in  them  with  all  the  modern  appliances  of 
science  and  machinery,  the  cattle  shall  feed  themselves  all 
the  year  on  the  natural  grasses  of  our  Western  plains. 
Cattle  are  thus  produced  by  millions  over  large  districts  of 
our  domain;  and,  from  the  most  favored  belts,  steers  have 
come  to  market  with  a  well-matured  weight  of  1,400  to 
1,800  pounds.  Skillful  ranch  operators  have  made  and  are 
making  fortunes  under  this  simple  patriarchial  sj^stem  of 
beef  production.  But  this  system  is  merely  temporary,  a 
few  years,  more  or  less,  and  the  native  grasses  are  eaten 
out,  and  beef-growing  returns  to  the  civilized  system, 
involving  labor  directed  by  skill.  Besides,  the  home  and 
foreign  markets  require  all  the  good  beef  we  can  produce 
under  the  best  system. 

We  shall  therefore  confine  our  attention  to  the  regular 
system  where  so  much  de}3ends  upon  skill  in  its  manipula- 
tion. We  have  previously  shown  that  there  is  no  mystery 
in  the  growth  of  animals — that  every  pound  weight  put  on 
represents  so  much  food.     We  wish  to  impress  upon  the 


234  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

mind  of  every  stock-feeder  this  primary  law  of  equiva- 
lence— that  every  pound  of  growtli  must  be  the  result  of 
food  expended.  There  is  no  game  of  chance  in  cattle- 
feeding,  by  which  you  may  sometimes  get  something*  for 
nothing — every  favorable  result  must  be  balanced  by  an 
expenditure  of  food  and  care.  It  is  here  all  even-handed 
justice — so  much  for  so  much — but  never  so  much  for 
nothing. 

Farmers,  during  the  last  decade,  have  given  much 
greater  attention  to  the  economical  question  of  stock- 
raising,  not  ,only  as  a  source  of  present  profit,  but  as  a 
means  of  perpetual  fertility  to  the  soil. 

We  have  long  regarded  it  as  the  height  of  unwisdom  to 
export  the  heavy  raw  material  (grain)  instead  of  the  con- 
centrated product,  meat ;  and  have  been  pleased  to  note  a 
decided  change  in  the  general  opinion  and  practice  among 
farmers  in  this  matter.  The  grain  and  the  animals  should 
be  raised  upon  the  same  farm,  but  only  the  animals  sold. 
There  is  more  profit  in  the  sale  of  the  concentrated  product 
than  the  raw  material. 

We  shall  hope  to  show  how  grain-raising  and  stock- 
growing  may  be  profitably  blended  together. 

A  thorough  discussion  of  cattle-feeding  requires  that  we 
take  up  first — 

How  TO  Feed  the  Young  Calf. 

As  we  have  seen,  fresh  milk  is  the  best  food  for  the 
young  calf,  and  the  natural  method  of  taking  it  is  for  the 
calf  to  draw  it  from  the  udder  of  its  dam.  But  there  are 
many  considerations  that  come  in  to  prevent  this  natural 
method  among  the  500,000  dairymen  of  the  United  States. 
This  natural  method  is  only  practicable  among  the  breed- 
ers of  pure-blooded  and  high-priced  stock,  grown  primarily 
for  beef;  and  if  such  breeder  of  high  blood  is  located  in 
a   dairying   district,  where   milk   is  valuable,  it   is   quite 


CATTLE   FEEDIITG.  335 

unnecessary  that  he  should  feed  new  milk  longer  than  one 
or  two  months.  After  that  period,  the  calf  may  be  fed 
upon  the  skim-milk,  and  linseed  or  flax-seed  gruel,  with  an 
excellent  chance  of  growing  a  prize  animal.  In  thirty  to 
sixty  days  the  calf  will  have  made  an  excellent  start  and  be 
ready  for  the  modified  diet.  And  if  the  calf  is  to  be  taught 
to  drink,  it  is  better  to  do  this  when  six  to  ten  days  old.  It 
will  learn  easier  at  that  age  than  later,  and  the  cow  will 
give  more  milk  through  the  season  than  if  the  calf  is  per- 
mitted to  suck  longer.  The  milk  being  fed  warm  from  the 
mother,  the  calf  will  make  a  growth  not  perceptibly  differ- 
ent from  one  that  sucks.  This  blooded  calf  should  have 
the  free  run  of  a  dry  yard,  with  a  little  hay  or  grass  to  eat, 
that  it  may  early  develop  its  first  stomach  and  chew  its 
cud.  A  small  field  of  grass  in  summer  is  still  better. 
When  the  time  comes  for  feeding  skim-milk,  the  ration 
may  be  made  about  as  nutritious  as  the  new  milk  by  add- 
ing to  it  flax-seed  gruel,  made  by  boiling  a  pint  of  flax- 
seed and  a  pint  of  oil-meal  in  ten  to  twelve  quarts  of  water, 
or  flax-seed  alone  in  six  times  its  bulk  of  water.  Mix  this 
one  to  three  parts  with  skim-milk  and  feed  blood-warm. 
Let  the  calf  have  its  fill  twice  per  day,  at  regular  times, 
until  six  months  old.  During  this  time  teach  it  to  eat  a 
few  oats,  and  in  case  of  a  tendency  to  scour,  give,  for  a 
meal  or  two,  in  the  milk,  a  quart  of  coarse  wheat  flour, 
sometimes  called  by  farmers  canel.  It  will  be  perceived 
that  the  oil  of  the  flax-seed  will  make  good  the  loss  of  the 
cream  in  the  milk — in  fact  it  is  a  ration  as  rich  as  milk 
itself;  and  we  have  seen  calves  raised  upon  it  quite  the 
equal  of  calves  running  with  the  dam.  We  have  also  used 
flax-seed  and  pea-meal  to  make  the  gruel  to  mix  with  the 
skim-milk,  and  it  has  proved  an  excellent  combination. 

Dairying  under  the  improved  system  introduced  in  the 
factory,  has  become  profitable ;  and  the  discovery  has  been 
made,  that  butter  and  cheese  of  excellent  quality  may  be 


236  FEEI)IN(i    ANIMALS. 

made  beyond  the  so-called  dairy  belt ;  that  good  grass  will 
make  good  milk,  and,  when  well  manufactured,  good  butter 
and  cheese,  West  as  well  as  East.  Dairy  products  have  be- 
come too  valuable  to  permit  calves  intended  for  the  dairy 
or  for  beef  to  be  raised  upon  whole  milk ;  they  must  be 
grown  upon  the  refuse  of  the  dairy — either  skim-milk  or 
whey — with  other  and  cheaper  food  to  be  added. 

Skim-milk  Ration  for  Calf. 

The  dairyman  may  feed  whole  milk  a  single  week,  and 
then  substitute  skim-milk,  with  a  little  flax-seed  jelly 
mixed  in  as  above  described  ;  or,  if  flax-seed  is  difficult  to 
procure,  add  two  tablespoonfuls  of  oil-meal  per  day,  dis- 
solved in  hot  water.  This  oil-meal  may  be  doubled  in  a 
week,  gradually  increasing  to  one  pound  per  day ;  but  this 
will  be  sufficient  up  to  sixty  days  old.  When  the  calf  is 
sixty  days  old,  add  one  pound  of  oats  or  oatmeal  or  wheat 
middlings.  Continue  this  for  sixty  days.  Twenty  pounds 
of  skim-milk  per  day  will  be  sufficient  for  the  first  ninety 
days,  but  no  injury  will  occur  from  a  larger  ration  as  the 
calf  grows  older.  For  the  next  ninety  days,  if  milk  is 
short,  feed  only  ten  pounds  of  skim-milk,  and  increase  the 
oats  or  middlings  to  two  pounds  per  day.  We  have  ad- 
vised the  linseed  oil-meal  because  it  is  excellent  for  the 
health  of  the  calf,  and,  as  we  saw  by  the  analysis,  has  ten 
per  cent,  of  oil  and  a  large  percentage  of  muscle-forming 
food,  and  phosphate  of  lime  to  build  the  bones  and  extend 
the  frame.  It  has  most  excellent  qualities  as  a  food  for 
raising  calves,  and  can  always  be  had  for  this  purpose  at 
from  one  and  a  half  to  two  cents  per  pound — generally  at 
the  former  figure  in  the  West,  and  the  latter  in  the 
East.  New  process  linseed-meal  is  now  gradually  taking 
the  place  of  the  old  style  oil-meal,  the  difference  being  that 
the  oil  is  reduced  to  two  and  a  half  per  cent.;  but  oil- 
meal  may  be  dispensed  with,  and  oat-meal  or  middlings 


SKIMMED    MILK    FOR   CALF.  237 

used  in  its  stead,  with  skim-milk.  In  fact,  if  jou  have 
plenty  of  skim-milk,  an  excellent  calf  may  be  raised  on 
this  alone.  But  it  often  occurs  that  more  calves  are  to  be 
raised  than  the  skim-milk  will  feed.  Skim-milk  is  much 
more  valuable  as  food  than  is  generally  supposed.  It  con- 
tains all  the  qualities  of  the  milk,  except  the  cream.  The 
casein,  the  most  valuable  food  constituent  of  the  milk,  and 
the  milk  sugar  or  whey,  are  still  in  it.  If  you  feed  -only 
skim-milk  to  a  healthy  calf,  it  will  require,  on  an  average, 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  of  milk  to  make  one  pound 
of  live  weight  during  the  first  ninety  days,  if  the  calf  is 
given  all  it  wants;  and  a  good  eater  will  gain  two  and  a  half 
pounds  per  day.  AVe  have  often  had  calves  seventy  days 
old  fed  with  one-half  pound  of  flax-seed  and  one  and  a  half 
pounds  of  oat-meal  each,  with  twenty  pounds  of  skim-milk 
l)er  day,  that  have  gained  in  weight  thirty  to  thirty-seven 
pounds  in  ten  days — an  average  of  over  three  and  one- 
fourth  pounds  each,  per  day.  The  flax-seed  and  oat-meal 
are  boiled,  and  then  mixed  with  the  milk.  The  average 
weight  of  these  calves,  when  dropped,  was  about  sixty 
pounds ;  their  average  weight  at  seventy  days  was  two 
hundred  and  thirty  pounds — they  had  consequently  gained 
2A'l  pounds  per  day.  They  were  fed  new  milk  for  one 
week,  then  half  new  and  half  skim-milk  for  another  week, 
then  upon  skim-milk  and  four  ounces  of  boiled  ilax-seed 
each,  per  day;  at  thirty-four  days  old  flax-seed  increased  to 
one-half  pound  and  one-half  pound  oat-meal  added;  the 
latter  was  increased  to  one  pound  in  a  few  weeks,  and 
afterwards  another  half  pound  added.  These  calves  were 
small,  but  excellent  eaters,  and  made  an  extra  gain.  But 
we  have  generally  succeeded  with  the  ration  first  given  in 
making  an  average  growth  of  two  pounds  per  day,  for  the 
first  ninety  days.  We  expect  thrifty  calves  to  reach  three 
hundred  pounds  at  three  months.  We  have  calves  at  this 
writing  forty  to  fifty  days  old,  that  are  gaining  tw^o  pounds 


238  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

per  day  upon  a  ration  compounded  in  the  same  proportion. 
For  the  second  three  months  the  calves  may  have  good 
pasture,  with  what  milk  can  be  spared — say  ten  pounds — 
with  one  quart  of  oats  and  one  pound  of  wheat  middlings. 
This  will  keep  them  growing  steadily  and  vigorously,  which 
is  the  only  way  to  make  them  profitable.  Good  feeders,  on 
the  ration  we  have  given,  will  reach  an  average  of  five  hun- 
dred pounds  at  six  months;  and  we  do  not  think  it  worth 
the  cost  to  attempt  raising  a  mincing  eater.  A  good  appe- 
tite and  good  digestion  are  essential  in  growing  a  profitable 
calf. 

Flax-seed  as  a  small  part  of  the  ration  for  the  calf  cannot 
be  too  highly  recommended.  It  is  a  natural  antidote  to 
scouring,  or  a  feverish  condition  of  the  stomach  and 
intestines.  Its  large  proportion  of  oil  renders  it  so  appro- 
priate to  mingle  with  other  food  deficient  in  oil,  that  it 
will  well  repay  any  feeder  to  keep  a  few  bushels  on  hand. 
It  is  also  excellent  to  mix  in  the  food  of  older  animals,  the 
details  of  which  will  be  given  in  subsequent  pages. 

There  are  many  examples  we  might  mention  as  an 
encouragement  to  pursue  this  system  of  full  feeding  upon 
refuse  milk  and  other  food. 

Hon.  George  Geddes  mentions  a  calf,  at  Syracuse,  X.  Y., 
only  240  days  old,  that  dressed  655  pounds,  and  must  have 
had  a  live  weight  of  875  pounds,  though  not  weighed  alive. 

Mr.  C.  S.  Marvin,  of  Oxford  Depot,  Orange  Co.,  K.  Y., 
had  a  calf  dropped  in  October,  186-i,  afterwards  called 
Uncle  Abe,  that  weighed  at  birth  134  pounds ;  at  90  days, 
385  pounds  ;  at  6  months  old,  670  pounds;  at  1  year,  1,036 
pounds.  But  this  calf  had  the  milk  pf  his  dam,  and,  after 
he  was  some  two  weeks  old,  a  quart  of  meal,  increased 
gradually  up  to  two  quarts.  This  steer  continued  to  grow 
rapidly,  and,  at  18  months,  weighed  1,354  pounds,  and,  at 
2  years,  1,616  pounds;  at  30  months,  1,830  pounds;  at  3 
years,  2,070  pounds ;  and,  at  4  years  and  5  months,  2,530 


SKIMMED    MILK    RATIOK.  239 

pounds.  This  is  a  case  where  new  milk  did  its  best  during 
the  first  year,  and  we  give  it  to  illustrate  the  best  feeding 
with  whole  milk.  But,  to  show  that  new  milk  may,  with- 
out injury,  be  omitted,  we  give  a  stronger  case  with  skim- 
milk  and  oil-meal :  Mr.  William  Wallace,  of  Grant  Park, 
Kankakee  Co.,  111.,  had  a  pair  of  twin  grade  Short-horn 
bull  calves,  dropped  April  2,  1870,  and  named  Ellsworth 
Twins.  Their  only  food  the  first  summer  was  sour  skim- 
milk,  oil-meal  and  grass.  They  weighed  together,  at  G 
months,  1,340  pounds;  at  1  year  old,  1,960  pounds;  at  2 
years,  3,305  pounds;  at  3  years  old,  4,500  pounds.  They 
were  weighed  at  various  intermediate  times,  and  made  a 
regular  and  steady  growth.  These  steers  were  fed  upon 
grass,  hay,  oats  and  corn,  in  the  open  air.  Their  increase 
was  somewhat  less  the  second  G  months  than  it  should  have 
been,  which  we  attribute  to  the  want  of  proper  shelter.  It 
will  be  seen  that  they  gained  only  half  as  much  the  second 
as  the  first  six  warm  months.  But  they  made  a  greater 
average  weight  at  2  years  than  Uncle  Abe,  with  all  the  new 
milk  he  could  take  for  the  first  ten  months.  It  is  to  be 
regretted  that  their  food  of  all  kinds  was  not  weighed,  so 
as  to  teach  us  a  most  important  lesson  as  to  cost  of  pro- 
ducing such  weight  under  the  system  of  full  feeding;  but 
we  know  that  it  cost  less  than  to  have  made  the  same 
growth  in  a  longer  time. 

Let  us  give  another  illustration  of  large  growths  made 
upon  refuse  milk,  reported,  on  good  authority,  in  the 
Country  Gentleman.  A  grade  Short-horn  calf,  dropped 
March  1, 1876,  was  purchased,  at  four  weeks  old,  by  C.  H. 
Farnum,  of  Concord,  N.  H.,  and  weighed  160  pounds.  He 
intended  it  as  a  mate  to  one  of  his  own,  weighing  205 
pounds,  proposing  to  raise  them  for  working  oxen.  Their 
feed  was  exclusively  skim-milk — all  they  would  take.  But 
it  was  soon  apparent  that  the  lightest  calf  was  outgrowing 
the  other,  and  he  abandoned  the  idea  of  using  them  for 


240  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

oxen.  He  slaughtered  the  one  originally  the  heaviest,  at 
eight  and  one-half  months  old,  and  it  dressed  522  pounds. 
Its  live  weight  is  not  known,  but  must  ha\e  been  at  least 
800  pounds — its  girth  was  fi\'^  feet  two  inches.  His  mate 
was  much  better  to  appearance,  and  it  was  determined  to 
keep  it,  on  experiment,  till  a  year  old.  This  calf  was  fed, 
during  the  last  three  months,  on  skim-milk,  shorts  and 
hay.  At  the  end  of  the  year  its  girth  was  six  feet  five 
inches,  and  the  calf  so  fat  as  to  cover  his  hips  from  sight. 
He  was  purchased  by  a  butcher,  at  ten  cents  per  pound 
dressed  weight.  His  live  weight  was  1,200  pounds,  and  his 
dressed  Aveight  902  pounds,  meat  748  pounds,  hide  and 
tallow  154  pounds.     Price  paid  890.20. 

This  last  calf  weighed,  at  twenty-eight  days  old,  IGO 
pounds.  It  gained  in  337  days,  or  the  balance  of  its  first 
year,  1,040  pounds,  an  average  of  3.08  pounds  per  day, 
which  is,  so  far  as  we  know,  the  largest  gain  on  record,  for 
so  long  a  period,  whatever  the  food. 

Here  are  two  cases  of  two  calves,  each  making  an 
unusual  weight,  especially  the  last  one,  without  any  new 
milk.  It  is  doubtful  if  any  case  can  be  found  of  greater 
weight  than  1,200  pounds,  at  one  year,  fed  upon  new  milk 
in  any  quantity.  In  fact  the  cases  are  so  numerous  of  great 
growth  upon  skim-milk,  that  it  cannot  longer  be  claimed 
that  whole  milk  is  necessary  to.  raise  even  the  best  calves. 
It  is  thus  evident  that  the  dairyman  may  raise  his  calves 
for  beef  or  for  the  dairy  without  interfering  with  his 
profits  in  butter.  And  the  expert  butter-maker  can  realize 
more  money  from  the  cream  than  the  whole  milk  will  bring- 
in  cheese,  and,  besides,  raise  fine  calves  upon  the  skim-milk. 
We  have  raised  many  fine  calves  upon  half  the  skim-milk 
of  the  dam,  supplemented  with  other  food  ;  but  it  is  quite 
an  easy  matter  for  a  skillful  feeder  to  raise  one  calf  to  each 
cow  devoted  to  butter  making,  with  the  aid  of  a  small 
amount  of  grain. 


cost  of  the  yearlikg.  241 

Cost  of  Calf  at  One  Year. 

As  the  author's  ohject  is  to  induce  farmers  to  raise  better 
animals,  and  thus,  not  only  add  to  their  profits,  but  equally 
to  their  pleasure  and  satisfaction,  we  will  estimate  the  cost 
of  growing  a  good  calf  for  the  first  twelve  months.  In  the 
Western  States  the  240  pounds  of  oats  required  for  the  first 
six  months  would  cost  about  one  cent  per  pound,  and,  if 
bran  were  used,  about  half  that;  the  182  pounds  of  oil- 
meal,  about  one  and  one-half  cents,  or  $2.73 — whole  cost 
of  grain,  85.13.  The  2,700  pounds  of  skim-milk  may  be 
called  worth  one-fourth  cent  per  pound,  or  $6.75  ;  and  if 
we  call  the  hay  or  grass  for  the  second  three  months  worth 
one  dollar,  we  have  ^12.88  as  the  entire  cost,  allowing  a 
fair  price  for  everything  eaten  by  the  calf;  and,  with  the 
ration  in  the  dase  we  have  described,  the  calf  should  have 
a  live  weight  of  500  to  600  pounds  at  six  months.  This 
calf  would  be  worth  twenty-five  dollars — certainly  a  fair 
margin  of  profit.  But  let  us  continue  the  estimate  to  the 
end  of  the  year.  The  second  six  months  the  calf  will 
require  ten  pounds  of  hay  per  day — 1,820  pounds,  costing, 
at  forty  cents  per  100  pounds,  $7.28  ;  three  pounds  of  oats 
and  corn,  ground  together,  and  two  pounds  of  bran,  per 
day,  910  pounds,  at  three-fourths  of  a  cent  (the  price  in 
ordinary  times),  86.83 — amounting,  for  second  six  months, 
to  $14.11,  and  for  the  year  to  $26.99.  This  calf,  at  a  year, 
will  weigh  800  to  1,000  pounds,  and  be  worth  forty  to  sixty 
dollars,  depending  on  price  of  beef.  We  have  estimated  an 
average  top  price  of  cost  for  the  food  of  such  a  calf  in  the 
West,  and  from  ten  to  twenty  per  cent,  must  be  added  to 
represent  the  cost  in  the  East.  Deduct  one-third  of  this 
food,  and  you  have  the  cost  of  a  common  animal — not  worth 
the  cost  of  its  keep. 

Here,  as  everywhere  in  feeding  animals,  is  illustrated  the 
fact,  that  from  the  extra  food  comes  all  the  profit. 
11 


242  FEEDING    AKntALS. 

There  are  many  other  foods  that  may  be  used  to  feed  the 
calf  the  second  six  months,  to  be  determined  by  the  price 
of  the  particular  food  in  the  different  localities.  Linseed- 
meal  (extracted  by  the  new  process),  is  one  of  the  best  foods 
to  grow  the  young  animal.  This  can  usually  be  bought 
for  twenty  to  twenty-five  dollars  per  ton,  and,  when  corn 
is  cheap,  the  best  grain  ration  would  be  two  pounds  linseed- 
meal  and  three  pounds  of  corn-meal  per  day  added  to  the 
hay  ration,  or  hay  and  straw  ration.  Tlie  linseed-meal  has 
a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:  1.4,  and  corn-meal  1:  8.5,  and  the 
mixture  would  have  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:  5.G,  or  a  well 
balanced  ration.  The  linseed-meal  is  rich  in  the  constitu- 
ents of  bone  and  muscle,  and  the  corn  in  the  elements 
that  generate  heat  and  lay  on  fat. 

Rye  and  barley-meal,  millet  and  buckwheat-meal,  pea 
and  oat-meal,  are  all  excellent  food  for  calves  the  first 
winter. 

Whey  Ration  for  the  Calf. 

Although  an  easy  matter  to  raise  a  fine  calf  upon  milk 
deprived  only  of  its  cream — this  single  element  being  easily 
supplied — the  successful  use  of  milk  deprived  of  both 
cream  and  casein,  or  cheese,  leaving  only  wliey  or  milk 
sugar,  requires  much  more  skill  and  a  knowledge  of  the 
composition  of  different  foods.  Sugar  is  an  important 
element  of  food,  but  only  one — and  no  animal  can  subsist 
upon  sugar  alone.  Whey,  however,  is  not  inire  milk  sugar, 
but  contains  a  little  soluble  albumen,  a  trace  of  casein 
or  cheese,  a  little  soluble  phosphate  of  lime — but  still 
mostly  mere  sugar  of  milk.  This  milk  sugar  in  whey  is 
in  a  very  soluble  and  digestible  condition,  and  has  a  feed- 
ing value  well  worth  saving.  We  have  usually  considered 
whey,  theoretically,  as  containing  only  the  sugar  of  milk  ; 
but  Prof.  Voelcker  gives  18  analyses  of  whey,  taken  from 
as  many  different  cheese  makers'  vats,  and  if  these  samples 
are  no  better  than  the  general  average  of  the  whey  from 


WHEY    RATION    FOR    CALF. 


243 


onr  choeso  factories,  then  wliey  has  a  greater  feeding  value 
than  its  milk  sugar  would  indicate.  The  following  is  the 
average  of  his  18  analyses  : 


93.08 
.33 
.97 

4.98 
.70 

Calculated 
dry.     . 

Water 

Hiitler  (pure  fatj 

4  H() 

•Albuminous  comiioundH 

14. fX) 

Milk  sugar  and  lactic  acid 

70  18 

Mineral  matter  (ashj 

11.02 

Total 

•Containing  nitrogen 

100.00 
.146 

100.00 
3  75 

This  shows  a  greater  waste  than  has  been  supposed  of 
the  nitrogenous  matter  in  the  whey.  The  ash  also  is 
remarkably  large — nearly  as  much  as  in  whole  milk — 
but  common  salt,  probably,  forms  half  of  this  ash,  and  this 
comes  from  the  salt  used  in  cheese  making.  But  the 
albuminous  matter  forms  nearly  one  per  cent.,  and  will  be 
a  great  assistance  in  feeding  beyond  that  of  nearly  pure 
milk  sugar.  Yet,  to  make  whey  a  suitable  food  to  grow 
the  young  animal  vigorously,  we  must  supplement  the  oil 
taken  away  in  the  cream — the  nitrogenous  food,  the  phos- 
phate of  lime,  magnesia,  sulphur,  soda,  etc.,  taken  away  in 
the  casein,  or  cheese,  and  when  we  have  combined  these  in 
proper  proportion  with  the  whey,  we  have  restored  it  nearly 
to  its  normal  condition  of  milk,  audit  then  forms  an  appro- 
priate food  to  grow  calves.  This  requires  a  little  thought 
on  the  part  of  the  feeder;  but  every  farmer  ought  to  be 
willing  to  give  thought  and  care  to  his  business.  Probably 
the  best  single  food  to  be  added  to  whey  is  oil-meal.  By 
recurring  to  the  table  of  analyses  given  on  page  140,  it 
will  be  seen  that  oil-meal  has  28  per  cent,  of  muscle-form- 
ing food — just  what  whey  is  deficient  in — and  also  10  per 
cent,  of  oil  (another  deficiency  in  whey);  and  it  has  nearly 
8  per  cent,  of  ash  ;  and  thi>:  ash  i.s  made  up  of  ])hosphate 


244  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

of  lime,  magnesia,  potash,  soda,  etc. — ^just  what  is  needed 
to  build  the  bones  and  frame  of  the  calf.  Now,  if  one- 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  oil-meal  or  cake  (which  is  less  likely 
to  be  adulterated),  dissolved  in  hot  whey,  is  added  to  each 
gallon  of  whey,  it  will  make  it  good  food  for  a  calf  ten 
days  to  two  Aveeks  old.  When  the  calf  is  three  to  four 
weeks  old,  add  a  quarter  pound,  or  an  equal  amount  of 
wheat  bran,  ground  oats  or  barley,  to  each  gallon  of  whey. 
This  oil-meal,  bran  or  oats,  will  make  the  whey  about 
equal  to  milk.  The  oil-meal  and  oat-meal  should  be 
scalded  in  whey  or  water.  This  extra  food  given  with  the 
whey  is  not  very  expensive,  costing  only  from  $4  to  $5.50, 
according  to  location,  to  feed  a  calf  for  six  months,  if  we 
suppose  the  calf  to  take  four  gallons  per  day;  and  we  have 
known  many  calves  thus  fed  that  weighed  500  lbs.  at  six 
months  old;  but  an  average  of  400  to  450  lbs. 'can  be  de- 
pended on  with  good  care  and  this  ration  ;  and  such  calves 
are  worth  about  $20  per  head  at  that  age.  If  raised  upon 
whey  alone,  they  are  not  worth  enough  to  pay  the  labor 
expended.  The  proper  use  of  whey  in  feeding  young 
animals  is  a  matter  of  much  importance.  It  is  estimated 
that  there  are  made  in  the  United  States  300,000,000  lbs. 
of  cheese.  This  would  represent  in  the  whey,  according 
to  Voelcker's  analyses,  188,000,000  lbs.  of  dry  food,  reckon- 
ing one  gallon  of  whey  to  each  pound  of  cheese.  And  if 
we  suppose  each  calf  to  take  during  the  season  600  gallons 
of  whey,  the  300,000,000  gallons  would  feed  500,000  calves. 
And  if  these  calves  were  fed  according  to  our  formula,  they 
would  average  a  weight  of  400  lbs.;  and  if  we  estimate 
them  as  worth  only  814  per  head,  and  the  extra  food  as 
costing  85  per  head,  it  would  leave  a  credit  to  the  whey  of 
89  per  head,  or  a  sum  total  made  from  whey  of  84,500,000. 
We  regard  this  as  less  than  the  actual  result  would  be  if  the 
whey  were  fed  as  indicated;  and  here  seems  to  be  an  im- 
portant field   for   improvement.      It    is  not  necessary  to 


WHEY   RATION   FOR   CALF.  245 

follow  the  exact  plan  here  proposed  in  order  to  utilize  the 
whey.  If  oil-meal  or  oil-cake  cannot  easily  be  obtained, 
wheat  bran,  oat-meal,  barley-meal,  or  oats  and  peas  ground 
together,  may  be  substituted  ;  a  small  portion  of  corn-meal 
may  be  mixed;  but  it  is  not  proper  to  be  fed  alone  with 
whey,  as  corn  has  too  large  a  proportion  of  starch  and  too 
small  a  jiroportion  of  muscle-forming  elements  to  make  up 
for  the  deficiencies  in  tlie  whey.  Another  important  point 
is,  that  the  whey  should  not  be  allowed  to  get  very  sour 
before  feeding,  but  should  be  fed  as  nearly  sweet  as  possible. 

The  new  process  linseed-meal  also  makes  a  good  addition 
to  whey  for  feeding  calves.  This  has  only  one-fourth  as 
much  oil  as  the  old  style,  but  the  per  cent,  of  albuminous 
matter  is  larger.  A  better  ration  to  feed  the  young  calf 
than  the  one  first  above  given,  would  be  one-fourth  pound 
of  linseed-meal  and  one-fourth  pound  of  flax-seed,  boiled 
together  and  added  to  two  gallons  of  whey.  This  would  re- 
place more  of  the  oil  and  cost  but  slightly  more.  Whey  is  not 
so  badly  balanced  as  a  food  for  young  animals  of  some  age 
as  is  generally  supposed,  but  it  contains  too  much  water  in 
proportion  to  its  dry  matter — 93  per  cent,  water  to  7  per 
cent,  dry  substance.  And,  for  this  reason,  there  is  a  large 
benefit  in  mixing  other  food  Avith  it  to  reduce  the  propor- 
tion of  water.  After  the  calves  reach  an  age  of  60  to  90 
days,  wheat  middlings  may  be  mixed  with  the  whey  alone, 
at  the  rate  of  one-half  pound  to  the  gallon.  The  food  then 
will  be  8?  per  cent,  water  to  13  per  cent,  dry  substance, 
comparing  favorably  with  milk,  beets,  mangel,  and  some  of 
the  more  watery  green  foods,  such  as  green  rape,  beans  in 
blossom,  cabbage,  carrot-tops,  etc.  To  this,  requiring  the 
calf  to  take  so  much  water  for  so  little  food,  is,  no  doubt, 
due  much  of  the  injurious  effects  of  feeding  Avhey  alone, 
and,  as  we  have  seen,  it  is  easy  to  obviate  this  by  mixing 
dry  food  with  it. 

Large  experiments  have  been  conducted  by  Mr.  I.  H. 


246  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

Wanzer,  of  Elgin  Creamery,  Illinois,  in  feeding  this  whey 
ration  to  a  large  number  of  calves.  He  used  oil-meal,  oats 
and  bran  with  whey  after  the  calf  was  four  weeks  old.  He 
raised  1^0  calves  in  1876  on  this  diet,  and  sold  them  at  an 
average  of  about  $21  per  head,  at  seven  months  old.  The 
farmer  cannot  properly  object  that  it  requires  grain  under 
this  mode  of  feeding,  because  he  raises  his  grain  with  a 
view  to  realizing  so  much  money  from  it,  and  the  money 
will  come  more  surely  by  feeding  it  to  calves  than  selling 
in  market.  It  is  not  good  farming  to  sell  grain,  when 
more  money  can  be  made  from  feeding  it  to  animals  and 
selling  the  animals.  It  is  time  American  farmers  had 
changed  their  system  of  raising  so  largely  of  grain  to  sell 
in  market,  and  adopted  the  better  English  system  of  rais- 
ing all  the  coarse  grain  required  in  the  rotation,  and  buy- 
ing all  they  can  economically  use  in  addition,  to  feed  out 
on  the  farm,  that  the  land  may  be  kept  good  if  not 
improved. 

Hay  Tea  Ration  for  Calves. 

This  old  expedient  to  rear  calves  without  milk  had  an 
excellent  basis,  as  do  most  common  practices.  The  solu- 
ble nutritive  constituents  of  the  hay  are  extracted  by  boil- 
ing, and  this  extract  contains  all  the  food  elements  required 
to  grow  the  animal,  besides  being  as  digestible  as  milk.  If 
the  hay  is  cut  early,  when  it  has  most  soluble  matter,  and 
is  of  good  quality,  the  tea  will  grow  good  calves;  but  this 
extract  frequently  has  too  small  a  proportion  of  albumin- 
ous and  fatty  matter.  Yet  if  the  hay  tea  is  boiled  down  so 
as  not  to  contain  too  much  water  for  the  dry  substance, 
calves  will  usually  thrive  upon  it.  We  tried  an  experiment 
by  feeding  2  gallons  of  hay  tea,  in  which  M  lb.  of  flax-seed 
and  1^  lb.  of  wheat  middlings  had  been  boiled,  to  each  of  5 
calves  30  days  old.  This  experiment  was  continued  GO  days, 
with  a  gradual  increase,  during  the  last  30  days,  of  the 
middlings  to  1  lb.  per  day.     These  calves  did  remarkably 


HAY    TEA    RATION    FOR   CALVES.  247 

well,  gaining  an  average  of  a  little  over  2  pounds  per  head 
per  day. 

Having  mentioned  this  experiment  to  a  farmer,  who  sold 
his  milk  for  city  consumption,  yet  desired  to  raise  a  half 
dozen  calves,  he  tried  the  same  formula  and  reported  a 
gain  per  day  for  GO  days  of  2M  lbs.  per  head.  In  our  ex- 
periment we  boiled  hay  cut  fi  of  an  inch  long,  and  3  lbs. 
for  each  calf,  h-alf  an  hour,  and  then  the  short  hay  was 
raised  upon  a  wire-cloth  sieve  over  the  kettle  and  drained, 
whilst  the  flax-seed  and  middlings  were  put  into  the  kettle 
and  boiled  to  a  jelly.  The  plan  might  be  carried  out  on  a 
large  scale  at  little  cost  per  calf. 

What  Age  for  Beef? 

This  is  a  vital  question  at  the  entrance  of  the  discussion 
of  the  cattle-growing  business.  The  attention  of  the 
American  farmer  has  been  strongly  called  to  the  profitable 
age  for  beef  by  the  great  increase  in  our  exports  of  live 
cattle  during  the  last  few  years.  The  appreciation  of 
English  consumers  of  our  best  cattle  offers  every  induce- 
ment for  perseverance  in  improving  our  methods  and  cheap- 
ening our  results  to  the  greatest  extent.  The  greater  the 
value  we  can  concentrate  into  an  animal  of  1,000  lbs.,  within 
the  shortest  time,  or  into  a  ton  of  dead  meat,  the  greater 
will  be  our  profit.  The  consumption  of  meat  by  the  people 
of  Great  Britain  and  of  Europe  is  much  less  per  capita 
than  in  the  United  States,  and  a  large  increase  is  reasonably 
to  be  expected  when  the  best  quality  of  meat  shall  be 
offered  them.  The  uneasiness  of  English  farmers,  excited 
when  our  exports  of  dead  meats  first  commenced,  has,  hap- 
pily, been  quieted  by  a  reasonable  consideration  of  the  fact 
that  their  home  demand  for  meat  is  much  greater  than 
they  can  supply.  There  is  room  for  their  own  and  all  we 
can  send.  We  have  only  to  study  how  to  produce  the  best 
quality  at  the  least  cost;  and  we  may  in  this  learn  a  valua- 


2-18  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

ble  lesson  from  the  i)ractice  of  the  best  English  breeders 
and  feeders.  Their  lauds  are  so  expensive,  and  cattle  food 
so  dear,  that  they  have  long  been  obliged  to  look  at  the 
question  of  cost  in  feeding  very  closely,  and  have  been  able 
to  produce  results  that  we  may  most  profitably  imitate. 

In  a  previous  chapter  we  have  strenuously  insisted  upon 
the  speediest  growth  consistent  with  health,  showing  that 
earhj  maturity  offered  the  only  safe  system  of  profitable 
beef  production ;  and  as  these  pages  are  written  to  teach 
more  by  example  than  precept,  we  shall  often  try  to  illus- 
trate the  principles  taught,  not  only  by  our  own  practice, 
but  by  that  of  the  best  feeders  in  this  and  other  countries. 
In  those  countries  where  the  first  study  is  to  furnish  food 
for  the  greatest  number  of  animals,  that  abundant  manure 
may  be  returned  to  the  soil,  we  may  expect  to  find  little 
matters  studied  that  quite  escape  the  attention  of  feeders 
in  a  country  like  ours,  where  space  and  food  are  so  abun- 
dant. But  we  are  also  now  strongly  admonished  that  the 
generous  production  of  a  new  soil  cannot  last  forever,  with- 
out also  studying,  as  all  other  countries  do,  how  to  com- 
pensate the  soil  for  the  crops  taken  from  it. 

The  tendency  of  the  best  English  feeders  has  been,  for 
many  years,  towards  the  early  maturity  of  cattle  for  mar- 
ket. They  are  fast  exploding  the  old  idea  that  four-year- 
old  beef  must  necessarily  be  better  than  younger  beef. 
They  first  compromised  on  three  years  old,  fearing  that 
cutting  off  one  year  would  reduce  the  quality;  but  that 
proving  entirely  satisfactory  to  butchers  and  customers, 
they  continued  to  shorten  the  time  down  to  30  months, 
with  very  little  falling  off  in  weight,  and  no  deterioration 
in  quality.  It  was  at  once  discovered  that  shortening  the 
market  age  added  a  large  percentage  to  the  profit,  and  the 
best  feeders  have  at  length  succeeded  in  maturing  the  steer 
at  24  months,  reaching  about  the  same  price  they  had  ob- 
tained at  30  months;  and  now  Mr.  Ilenrv  Evershed  writes 


What  age  for  beef. 


249 


nil  article  for  the  Royal  Agricultural  Journal,  giving  the 
experience  of  vurious  eminent  farmers  in  raising 

''Baby  Beef." 

This  beef  is  from  steers  and  heifers  brought  to  market 
at  from  eleven  to  twenty  months  old.  The  points  made  in 
this  article  of  Mr.  Evershed's  are  so  important,  and  have 
such  a  material  bearing  upon  the  true  course  to  be  followed 
ill  beef  raising  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States,  that  we 
shall  make  sufficient  extracts  to  show  the  mode  of  doing  it 
and  the  results.  Mr.  Stanford,  of  Charlton  Court,  is  stated 
as  having  lately  sold  the  following  high-grade  Short-horns 
at  the  following  ages  and  prices  : 


Price 
(Gold). 

Return 
per  month 
from  birth. 

One  eleven-months-old  steer 

1  74.00 
101.64 
92.40 
101.64 
127  00 
102.30 
11.5.50 
129.36 
122  10 

$6  73 

One  thirteeii-inonths-old  steer 

7  82 

Three  fourteen-months-okl  heifers,  average 

6  60 

Three  liUeen-monllis-old  lieifers,  average    

6  77 

One  sixteen-nioiiths-old  steer 

7  94 

Five  sixteen-nionths-old  steers,  average 

One  ei«;hteen-inonths-old  steer 

6.39 
6  42 

One  eigliteen  an.l  one-lialf-months-old  steer     

Two  eighteen  and  one-lialf-months-old  steers,  average 

7.00 
6.60 

It  does  not  appear  what  the  individual  weights  of  these 
'' baby-beef "  animals  were,  but  the  price,  net  weight,  is 
given  at  an  equivalent  of  sixteen  to  eighteen  cents  per 
pound,  probably  according  to  our  New  York  custom, 
counting  only  the  four  quarters. 

Mr.  Evershed  remarks: 

"  The  above  figures  show  that  tolerably-bred  Short-horns 
will  return  seven  shillings  a  week  from  birth  on  this  system, 
at  from  thirteen  to  eighteen  months  old.  Those  Short-horns 
which  afford  the  least  return  were  bought  in  the  market, 
and  tliose  which  gave  the  highest  were  by  Mr.  Stanford's 
pedigree  bull,  out  of  his  well-bred,  but  not  pedigree  cows. 


250  FEEDING   ANTMALS. 

The  best  feeders  of  common  country-bred  cattle  in  Sussex 
and  Surrey  inform  me,  that  they  consider  a  fair  average 
weight  for  animals,  Avell  fed  from  birth,  100  Smithfield 
stone  at  one  hundred  weeks,  giving  a  return  of  one  stone 
(eight  pounds  dressed  weight)  per  week,  or  six  shillings 
($1.32)  per  week." 

He  mentions  one  killed  by  Mr.  Page,  that  dressed  132 
stone  at  one  hundred  weeks.  This  Avould  be  equivalent  to 
1,760  pounds  live  weight.  Some  of  the  sixteen-months 
steers  dressed,  in  the  quarters,  GOO  pounds,  having  120 
pounds  of  rough  fat,  and  a  very  small  proportion  of  offal. 
This  is  not  equal  in  weight  to  several  given,  pages  238-40. 
He  represents  that  the  best  feeders  are  able  to  reach  an 
average  of  11.43  per  week  at  sixteen  to  twenty  months, 
from  a  Short-horn  cross  on  common  cows.  This  Avould 
give  $122  per  head  at  twenty  months  old — a  figure  that 
American  feeders  would  like  to  reach.  There  is  nothing  to 
hinder  them  reaching  the  weights  at  that  age,  but  they 
may  seldom  reach  those  prices.  Yet  it  may  truthfully  be 
said  that  we  can  raise  these  steers  or  heifers  at  quite  as 
good  a  profit  as  tli:it  of  the  English  feeder — the  cost  of  our 
animals  being  no  liigher  in  proportion  to  the  price  received 
than  those  raised  in  England. 

That  we  may  see  how  the  English  feeder's  account  stands, 

let  us  copy  his  statement  of  the  cost  of  a  "  baby  bullock  " 

seventy-one   weeks  old,  or  one   year  and   nineteen  weeks, 

reducing  the  figures  to  our  gold  currency: 

Purchase  of  calf ; $8.88 

Four  weeks'  new  milk,  six  quarts  daih%  at  ~d.  per  quart 6. 10 

Eight  weeks'  skimmed  milk,  six  quarts  daily,  at  Xd-  per  quart, 

and  two  pounds  of  meal,  at  l)^d.  per  pound " .5.C8 

Seventeen  weeks,  in  June,  July,  August,  and  September,  on  a  daily 

diet  of  two  pounds  of  linseed  cake,  two  pounds  bean  meal, 

mangel,  hay,  grass,  clover,  etc 17.57 

Twenty-six  weeks  to  end  of  March,  five  pounds  of  cake  and  meal 

daily,  three-fourths  bushel  of  roots,  hay  and  straw  for  fodtU  r. .  30.27 
Sixteen  weeks  to  harvest,  eight  pounds  of  cake  and  meal  daily, 

mangel,  grass,  clover— total  §1 .59  per  week 25.44 

Attendance,  seventy-one  weeks,  at  eleven  cents 7.bl 

Insurance,  interest,  and  rent  of  shed 5.54 

Total $  107. 35 


BABY   BEEF.  251 

This  estimate  shows  the  young  bullock,  born  in  the 
spring  and  sold  at  harvest  time  the  next  year,  costs  $1.51 
per  week,  and  should  be  worth,  according  to  Mr.  Stanford's 
average,  $108.02.  The  value  of  the  manure  is  estimated  at 
twenty  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  the  food  ($85.12)  or  $17.02. 
The  account  stands  thus: 

Dr.— A  bullock  71  weeks  old $107.35 

Profit   17.69 

Total $125.04 

Cr.—A  bullock  sold  at  71  weeks  old $108.03 

Value  of  manure 17.03 

Total $125.04 

This  is  an  instructive  exhibit  of  the  most  profitable 
form  of  English  stock  feeding.  The  English  farmer  is 
obliged  to  take  his  profit  in  the  manure  account,  which  the 
American  farmer  too  seldom  takes  the  trouble  to  estimate. 
It  is  to  be  considered,  also,  that  this  English  farmer  is 
merely  a  tenant,  and  estimates  the  value  of  the  manure  to 
the  tenant,  to  be  applied  to  the  land  of  his  landlord.  A 
study  of  this  fact  would  be  of  the  greatest  value  to  the 
American  farmer  who  holds  the  fee  simple  of  his  land,  but 
is  less  desirous  of  improving  it  than  the  temporary  holder 
of  an  English  farm.  The  sooner  our  farmers  shall  study 
this  manure  problem,  connected  with  cattle  feeding,  the 
better  it  will  be  for  their  permanent  prosperity.  It  will 
also  be  noted  that  the  food  is  charged  at  figures  as  much 
higher  than  our  current  rates  as  the  price  of  beef  is  higher 
tliere  than  here.  Cake  is  the  principal  food  that  the 
English  farmer  buys  ;  and,  therefore,  when  he  turns  his 
own  crops  into  meat  and  realizes  full  prices  for  them, 
besides  saving  the  manure  for  his  land  and  laying  the 
foundation  for  more  crops,  he  properly  thinks  himself  on 
the  prosperous  road. 

We  must  here  contrast  the  cost  of  keep  of  such  young 
bullock  in  this  country,  that  we  may  get  a  proper  com- 


252  Deeding  akimaLs. 

parison  of  the  situation  here  and  there.  On  page  241  aii 
estimate  is  made  for  first-rate  keep  for  such  young  animal 
during  the  first  12  months  in  the  Western  States,  and  the 
cost  found  to  be  $12.88  for  the  first  6  months,  and  $14.11 
for  the  second  G  months;  making  12  months  cost  $26.99, 
with  an  addition  of  20  per  cent,  for  the  Eastern  States, 
making  the  cost  in  the  latter  $32.38;  whilst  the  food  alone 
cost  $56.18  to  the  English  farmer.  Perhaps  many  readers 
will  desire  to  see  in  detail  the  cost  of  a  **  baby  bullock  "  of 
71  weeks  in  this  country,  calculated  on  the  same  plan  of 
feeding  as  given  in  Mr.  Evershed's  formula.  We  will 
calculate  this  for  the  West,  which  will  require  an  addition 
of  10  to  20  per  cent,  to  the  grain  ration  to  adapt  it  to  the 
Eastern  States.  That  it  may  have  more  than  a  temporary 
value,  it  will  be  estimated  on  average  prices  for  a  series  of 
years,  and  not  on  the  present  high  figures  for  grain. 

Purchase  of  calf $  5.00 

4  weeks'  new  milk,  14  lbs.  daily,  at  Ic 3.92 

10  weeks'  skim-milk,  16  lbs.  daily,  at  }{c. ;  2  lbs.  oats  or  finished 

middlings,  at  %c 4.02 

16  weeks,  to  about  1st  of  November,  on  a  daily  diet  of  10  lbs. 

skim-milk,  2  lbs.  oil-cake,  at  l>^c. ;  2},^  lbs.  oats  or  middlings, 

and  grass  or  clover 10. 00 

22  weeks,  to  the  end  of  first  year — 10  lbs.  hay,  2  lbs.  oil-cake, 

2  lbs.  oats,  2  lbs.  corn-meal 17.32 

19  weeks,  to  end  of  feeding  71  weeks— grass,  30c.  per  week;  3  lbs. 

cake,  5  lbs.  corn-meal,  daily 16.67 

Attendance,  71  weeks 8 .  00 

Insurance 1 .00 

Total $65.93 

Our  estimate  shows  the  cost  of  such  a  young  bullock  to 
be  92  cents  per  week.  It  will  dress  about  600  lbs.  in  the 
quarters,  weighing,  on  foot,  about  1,200  lbs.,  and  will  bring 
on  an  average,  in  our  market  63^  cents  on  foot — or,  say  $75. 
If  we  count  the  value  of  the  manure  as  20  per  cent,  of  cost 
of  food — say  $10 — the  account  will  stand  thus: 


COST   OF   AMERICAN   BABY   STEER.  253 

Dt.~K  bullock,  71  weeks  old $65.93 

Profit 19.07 

Total $85.00 

Cr.—A  bullock,  sold  at  71  weeks $75.00 

Value  of  manure 10.00 

Total $85.00 

This  tabulation  of  the  cost  of  our  "baby  bullock"  shows 
that  the  profits  are  easier  on  our  side  than  theirs,  although 
their  market  price  is  30  to  50  per  cent,  higher  than  ours. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  American  farmer  has  a  larger 
margin  of  profit,  even  in  our  depressed  market,  than  the 
English  farmer  in  his.  We  know  that  we  can  produce  as 
good  weight  and  quality  at  the  same  age  as  the  most 
skillful  British  farmer,  and  at  a  cost  40  per  cent.  less. 
Unfortunately  the  proportion  of  skillful  feeders  in  this 
country  is  much  less  than  in  England,  and  therein  is  where 
we  should  make  every  effort  to  improve.  If  50  per  cent. 
of  all  the  young  beef  animals  were  raised  on  a  similar  plan 
to  the  formula  given,  we  should  be  able  to  double  our 
exports  of  live  cattle  and  beef.  Unfortunately  the  surplus 
of  such  high  quality  is  not  large,  and  consequently  much 
of  a  poorer  quality  takes  its  place,  and  thus  injures  our 
market  abroad.  Our  foreign  market  for  the  best  beef  will 
grow  as  fast  as  the  quality  of  our  animals  improves. 

Quality  of   Youxg   Beef. 

Mr.  Evershed  gives  some  important  testimony  on  this 
point.  He  speaks  of  a  somewhat  general  opinion,  that 
very  young  beef  cannot  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  says  : 

''  Beef  is  affected  by  the  mode  of  feeding,  and  it  is  not 
the  fact  that  young  beef  is  necessarily  poor.  Mr.  Post,  the 
butcher  of  Ship  street,  Brighton,  who  supplies  a  superior 
class  of  customers,  writes  of  some  young  bullocks  of 
Charlton  Court,  purchased  in  January,  1874,  at  19}.<  months 
old,  and  weighing  100  stone,  94  stone,  92  stone  and  90 


254  FEEDING    AXIMALS. 

stone:  *  These  bullocks,  when  slaughtered,  were  most 
complete  bodies  of  beef;  and  the  meat  gave  every  satis- 
faction to  the  consumer,  being  very  tender,  and  of  delicious 
flavor.'  Mr.  Post  says  of  another  lot :  'I  bought  of  Mr. 
W.  Stanford,  at  Steyuing  Market,  on  March  9th,  five  very 
superior  Short-horn  steers,  under  20  months  old,  with 
calves'  teeth.  Their  meat  is  of  most  excellent  quality. 
The  heaviest  weighed  111  stone.  The  flesh  on  the  ribs, 
where  quartered  from  the  loin,  measured  five  inches  thick.' 
And,  further,  says  :  'I  have  during  the  last  three  years 
killed  a  large  number  of  the  young  bullocks  fed  by  Mr. 
Stanford  ; "  and,  after  expressing  a  favorable  opinion  of 
their  general  quality,  speaks  of  a  particular  one  as  *full  of 
fat,  witli  large,  thick  flesh,  finely  grained,  and  of  very 
superior  flavor.'  Mr.  Duke,  of  Steyning,  writes  of  some 
bullocks,  under  20  months  old:  '  They  were  all  remarkably 
ripe,  handsome  carcasses  of  beef,  giving  me  and  my  cus- 
tomers great  satisfaction,  as  they  have  always  done.  They 
carried  an  average  of  12K  stone  (100  lbs.)  of  fat.'  Mr. 
Glazebrook,  of  Steyning,  writes:  'Some  of  the  buyers  at 
the  sale  considered  I  had  given  a  guinea  a  bullock  more 
than  6s.  per  stone;  but,  from  the  experience  I  have  had  of 
Mr.  Stanford's  young  beasts,  I  had  confidence.'" 

These  details  give  strong  evidence  of  the  high  quality  of 
this  young  beef,  and  show  that  there  need  be  no  fear  of  a 
failure  for  want  of  ripeness  and  flavor  in  the  flesh  of  these 
young  animals  when  the  feeding  proceeds  upon  right 
principles. 

There  are  many  considerations  in  favor  of  this  system. 
First.  The  less  cost  per  hundred  pounds  of  beef  made  at 
20  months  or  under  than  over  that  period.  Sejcond.  The 
reduction  of  risk  in  shortening  the  market  age.  Third. 
The  quicker  returns  from  investment,  and,  therefore,  the 
greater  profit.  We  are  fully  persuaded  that  profitable 
feeding  must  establish  a  market  age  in  this  country  not 


QUALITY    OF    YOUXG    BEEF.  255 

above  24  months,  and   the   best   feeding   will   frequently 
reduce  this  to  20  months. 

The  Economy  of  Youis^G  Beef. 

We  have  just  been  discussing  the  quality  of  young  beef. 
It  is  now  important  to  show  the  reader  the  fundamental 
law  of  growth  as  proved  by  the  gain  which  cattle  make  at 
different  periods  or  ages.  We  have  had  no  means  of  deter- 
mining this  question  in  a  great  practical  way  till  the  insti- 
tution of  the  Chicago  Fat-Stock  shows.  Some  great  lesson 
was  necessaiy  to  be  taught,  in  a  practical  way,  which  should 
show  farmers,  by  ocular  demonstration,  the  true  system  of 
feeding.  They  can  see  the  bearing  of  facts  presented  tan- 
gibly before  them  in  the  exhibition  of  the  best  specimens 
of  cattle  of  various  ages,  and  this  is  an  illustration  which 
carries  conviction.  The  author  had  taught,  for  years,  that 
all  profit  lay  in  full  feeding  and  early  maturity  ;  but  no 
statement  could  be  so  forcible  as  an  array  of  cattle  of  all 
ages,  from  one  year  to  six,  with  the  exact  age  and  weight 
of  each  stated.     Seeing  is  believing. 

The  show  held  in  1878  was  remarkable  as  the  first  one ; 
but  the  four  exhibitions  that  have  followed  since,  have  each 
improved  upon  its  predecessor,  and  all  have  given  the 
classification  of  age,  weight,  measurement,  and  gain  per 
day.  In  this  respect  our  show  teaches  a  much  more  prac- 
tical lesson  than  the  great  Smithfield  Show  of  England. 
Sir  J.  B.  Lawes  has  complained  of  his  countrymen's  want 
of  exactness  in  estimating  the  weight  of  animals  instead 
of  actually  weighing  them.  It  is  a  very  important  point 
that  we  take  a  more  practical  view  of  the  matter,  and 
bring  every  animal  to  the  scales.  We  adopt  the  com- 
mercial standard — substitute  fact  for  hypothesis.  And 
when  we  apply  a  demonstrated  improvement  in  feeding 
to  our  38,000,000  of  cattle,  the  result  must  reach  great 
proportions. 


256  FEEDIXG    ANIMALS. 

We  liere  present  tables  grouj^iiig  the  animals  according 
to  age,  within  certain  limits — and  if  we  take  their  average 
age,  weight,  and  gain  per  day,  the  law  of  growth  will  be 
most  evident.  Some  of  these  tables  show  less  difference  in 
growth  according  to  age  than  others.  We  have  arranged 
them  arbitrarily  according  to  age,  ignoring  the  question  of 
breed.  The  table  for  the  show  of  1881,  in  the  group  of 
G31  days  old,  shows  but  a  mere  fraction  of  greater  gain 
than  in  the  group  of  903  days  old.  This  was  occasioned  by 
associating  three  Devon  steers  with  three  Short-horn  or 
grade  Short-horns.  The  Devons  gain,  respectively,  1.36, 
1.15,  1.38  per  day,  whilst  the  grade  Short-horns  gain  2.17, 
2.05,  2.01 — the  average  gain  of  the  six  being  1.69  per  day. 
And  in  the  group  of  903  days  are  two  remarkable  grade  steers 
that  gain  respectively  2.21  and  2.11,  which  brings  up  the 
average  gain  of  the  group  of  eight  to  1.58  per  day.  Still  it  is 
easy  to  see  the  effect  of  age  upon  the  gain  per  day.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  appropriate  comparison  is  of  the  same 
breed  with  itself  at  different  ages,  and  better  still,  the  same 
aniinals  at  different  ages. 

It  will  be  seen  in  all  the  tables  that  the  average  gain  per 
day  constantly  decreases  as  the  animals  grow  older  and 
heavier.  In  the  fifth  group  of  steers  oi"  the  show  in  1879 
the  average  gain  is  raised  considerably  by  the  rem.arkable 
steer  No.  30,  which  reached  2,820  lbs.  at  four  and  a  half 
years  old.  He  gains  .53  lb.  more  per  day  than  either  of 
the  others.  It  would  be  very  interesting  if  we  had  the 
periodical  gains  of  this  steer  for  each  six  months  of  its  life. 
This  would  give  a  most  important  lesson  of  the  relative 
growth,  according  to  age,  of  the  same  animal. 

Let  us  see  what  an  important  lesson  these  periodical 
Aveighings  Avould  teach.  We  may  reasonably  suppose  that 
the  second  group  at  this  show  were  as  thrifty  and  heavy  at 
569  days  old  as  the  first  group;  that  is,  that  they  weighed 
1,249  lbs.,  and  had  gained  2.19  lbs.  per  day;  but  during 


ECONOMY    OF    YOUNG    BEEF.  257 

the  next  279  days  they  gain  only  232  lbs.,  or  .83  lb.  per 
day.  This  is  only  38  per  cent.,  or  a  little  more  than  one- 
third  what  they  gained  during  the  first  i^eriod. 

The  third  group  of  steers  Avere  better  for  their  age  than 
the  second  group;  but  if  we  compare  the  gain  of  this 
group  with  the  first — they  were  671  days  older,  and  they 
gain  in  this  time  020  lbs.,  or  .92  lb.  per  day — much  less 
than  half  of  the  gain  of  the  first  period. 

But  this  does  not  show  all  the  loss  of  feeding  to  such  an 
age.  If  we  had  an  exhibit  of  the  food  consumed  by  the 
steers  of  the  first  group  in  making  an  average  growth  of 
1,249  lbs.,  and  also  the  food  eaten  by  the  third  group  in 
reaching  1,SG9  lbs.  weight,  we  should  find  the  live  weight 
of  the  latter  to  cost  in  food  40  to  50  per  cent,  more  than 
the  former;  that  is,  steers  not  only  gain  less  per  day  as 
they  grow  older,  but  they  eat  more  food  to  make  this  small 
gain. 

Steer  No.  29,  it  appears,  gained  only  6  lbs.  during  the 
last  year ;  and  steer  No.  28  only  90  lbs.  Both  of  these 
steers  consumed  more  food  during  the  last  year  than  dur- 
ing their  second  year  of  growth,  when  they  undoubtedly 
each  gained  more  than  two  pounds  per  day.  The  whole 
case  cannot  be  understood  until  the  exhibitors  give  a  his- 
tory of  the  food  expended  each  year,  as  well  as  the  gain. 
The  reader  will  see  what  numerous  questions  arise  on 
examining  tables  on  next  page. 


258 


FEEDING    ANIMALS. 


Chicago  Fat  Stock  Shows. 
Laiv  of  Growth  According  to  Age. 


1878. 


Age. 
Days. 

Weight. 

Grain 
per  day. 

4  Steers  : 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

No.    7 

6.50 

1.480 

2.28 

"      8  .... 

f)70 

1,275 

1.90 

"    27  

6.56 

1.420 

2.16 

"    28 

701 

1.520 

2.17 

Average.. 

669 

1,423 

2.13 

4  Steers: 

No.    .5 

969 

1,705 

1.76 

"      6  

978 

1,600 

1.64 

"    2.5 

962 

1,885 

1.96 

'•    26 

962 

1,560 

1.62 

Average . . 

968 

1,637 

1.74 

10  Steers: 

No.    3 

1,280 

2,115 

1.65 

"      4 

1,220 

2.060 

1.69 

"    14 

1,080 

1,470 

1.36 

"    10 

1,188 

1,285 

1.08 

"    20 

1,267 

1,475 

1.16 

"    24 

1,298 

2,305 

1.78 

"    23 

1,328  . 

2,185 

1.65 

"    19 

1.371 

1.655 

1.21 

"    13 

1,356 

1,760 

1.29 

"     12 

1.336 

1,705 

1.20 

Average . . 

1,272 

1,801 

1.41 

4  Steers- 

No.    1 

1.880 

2,085 

1.11 

"    15 

1,677 

1,595 

0.95 

"    ir 

1.658 

1,645 

0.99 

"    18 

1.652 

1,870 
1,799 

1.13 

Average . . 

1,717 

1.04 

5  Steers 

No.    8 

"    16 

"    17 

"    26 

•'    27 

Average . . 
5  Steers. 

No.    5 

"      6...... 


1879. 


585 
612 
iJOO 
605 
544 


845 
814 
710 


1,240 
1.397 
1,114 
1,196 
1.300 

1,249 


1,636 
1,449 
1,316 


2.11 

2.28 


1.97 
2.19 


1.93 

1.78 
1.87 


Age. 


No.  15 

"    24 

Average . 
6  Steers: 

No.  25 

"    23 

"    22 

*'     13 

'•      4 


Average 

4  Steers: 

No.    1 


Average 
4  Steers: 

No.  11 


Average 


6  Steers 
No.  84 


120. 
66. 

82. 
118. 


Average . 
10  Steers 
No.  70 


79. 
121. 

68 


'  64 

'  76.... 

'  56 

'  38.    ... 

'  57 

Avernge. 


Days. 
939 
9.32 

848 


1,059 
1,284 
1,294 
1,3.59 
1,311 
1,3:35 

1,240 


1,578 
1,593 
1,420 
1,.573 

1,541 


1,677 
1,689 
1,804 
1,643 


1,70 


Weight. 


Lbs. 
1.474 
1,532 


1,481 


1,.534 
1,649 
1,986 
1,968 
2,019 
2,069 


2,240 
2,166 
1,979 
2,118 

2,125 


1.930 
1,974 
2,134 

2,820 


2,216 


1880. 


721 

1.590 

710 

1,115 

671 

1,395 

696 

1.580 

642 

1.245 

585 
671 

1,490 

1,403 

908 

1,825 

884 

1,700 

849 

1.250 

1,064 

1,815 

1,018 

1.6.50 

940 

1.900 

921 

1.700 

832 

1,845 

910 

1,445 

8.52 

1,6.50 

917 

1,678 

GROWTH    ACCORDING   TO    AGE.  259 

Chicago  Fat  Stock  Shows— Continued. 


Age. 

Weight. 

i 

8  Steers: 

Days. 

Lbs. 

No.  60 

1,367 

2,350 

"    18 

1,250 

2,215 

"    55 

i.ias 

1.875 

'•    54 

1,350 

1,720 

"  115 

1.305 

1.270 

"  116 

1,305 

1,170 

"    27 

1,310 

1,^75 

"    36 

1.275 

1,.')75 
1,756 

Average.. 

1,293 

Grain 
per  day. 

Lbs. 
1.71 
1.77 
1.58 
1.27 
0.97 
0.89 
1.43 
1.23 

1.35 


1881. 


6  Steers 

,: 

No.  21.... 

.   1        719 

1,565 

2.17 

"    59... 

614 

835 

1.36 

"    60.. 

..         600 

690 

1.15 

"    60... 

..'        614 

850 

1.38 

"    74... 

. .  i        622 

1,280 

2.05 

"    86..    . 

620 
631 

1.250 

2.01 

Average 

1,080 

1.69 

8  Steers 

?: 

No.  23... 

880 

1,500 

1.70 

•'    58... 

928 

925 

0.99 

"    58.... 

969 

975 

1.00 

"    59  ... 

882 

1,030 

1.16 

"    95... 

862 

1.450 

1.68 

"  114.... 

964 

1,7.55 

1.82 

"  113... 

872 

1.9;i5 

2.21 

"  117.... 

872 

1,845 
1,4:6 

2.11 

Average 

903 

1.58 

17  Steer 

5: 

No.    8     . 

1,421 

1,930 

1.35 

'•    10... 

..      1,309 

2,1.50 

1.64 

"    11... 

1.362 

2,200 

1.61 

"    24.... 

.        1.873 

1,875 

1.00 

'•    25... 

..      1.0.-)5 

1.K5S 

1  75 

"    :«.... 

1.085 

1.895 

1  74 

•■    42..    . 

.      1,3-24 

2,085 

1.57 

••    45.... 

1.190 

2,145 

1.80 

"    47.... 

1,224 

1.965 

1.60 

"    48.. 

1.242 

1,930 

1.55 

No.  54. 

55. 

.58. 

.57. 
107. 
118 
122. 


Averasje . 


Age. 

Weight. 

Days. 

Lbs. 

1.326 

1,335 

1,777 

1.410 

1,328 

1.230 

1.268 

1,075 

1.237 

2.095 

1,268 

1,520 

1.268 
1,325 

],')95 

1,804 

1882 


11  Steers: 
No.  16.  .. 
"  29.... 
"  29)^.. 
'•  169><r.. 
"      21.... 

"  148... ■r 

'■      22 

"  38;;" 

"  5S.... 
"  22.... 
"      44.... 

Average . 
15  Steers: 

No.  109 

"    111.... 

"      17 

"    113.... 

"      35 

"    169 

"      58.   ... 

2 

"      23 

6 

•'      20 

"  18.... 
"     115 

8.  . 
"    116 

Average. 


Grain 
per  day. 

Lbs. 
1.00 
0.79 

0  92 
0.84 
1.61 
1.19 

1  57 

1.38 


645 

i.6\;o 

:m 

1.140 

412 

1,105 

697 

1.330 

7:W 

1.985 

8.b8 

2.220 

715 

1,600 

574 

1,410 

720 

1.475 

715 

1,600 

4-il 

8:30 

626 

1,483 

1.034 

1,905 

1.011 

1,8.50 

1,265 

2,400 

1.174 

1,945 

1,818 

1,545 

1.0.32 

1,630 

1,077 

1,940 

1.121 

1,765 

1,404 

1.865 

1,316 

1,840 

1.299 

2,060 

l.:^05 

2,385 

1.613 

2,.565 

1.636 

1,815 

1.644 

1.880 
1,956 

1,316 

2.51 
2.97 
2.68 
1.90 
2.72 
2.59 
2.23 
2.45 
2.05 
2.23 
1.90^ 

2.38 


1.84 
1.83 
1.90 
1.65 
0.85 
1.53 
1.80 
1.57 
1.32 
1.40 
1.58 
1.94 
1.59 
1.11 
1.14 

1.55 


We  give  these  tables  of  five  shows  somewhat  full,  embrac- 
ing nearly  all  the  prize  animals  under  five  years  old.  As 
tliey  have  been  the  most  instructive  array  of  cattle  ever 
exhibited,  presenting  the  most  convincing  evidence  of  the 
growth  of  animals,  at   different   periods,  under   the  most 


260  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

liberal  feeding.  They  were  fed  for  exhibition,  and  would 
thus  be  fed  as  their  exhibitors  believed  to  be  best  calculated 
for  rapid  growth,  and  therefore  are  all  fed  under  similar  con- 
ditions.    They  should  be  thoroughly  studied  by  the  feeder. 

It  is  interesting  to  trace  the  same  animal  from  year  to 
year.  No.  5G,  1880,  832  days  old,  weight  1,845  pounds,  had 
gained  2.21  per  day.  He  appears  the  next  year  as  No.  45, 
1,190  days  old,  weight  2,145  pounds,  having  gained  300 
pounds  in  a  year,  or  0.82  pound  per  day,  or  only  thirty- 
seven  per  cent,  of  its  previous  gain  per  day.  No.  107  of 
1881,  1,237  days  old,  weighed  2,095  pounds,  gain,  1.61 
pounds  per  day — appears  as  No.  115  of  1882,  weight  2,565 
pounds,  having  made  the  large  gain  of  470  pounds,  or  1.28 
per  day.  But  as  this  was  the  champion  steer  of  the  show 
in  1881,  also  in  1882,  it  was  fed  in  the  very  best  manner, 
but  still  it  fell  nearly  one-third  of  a  pound  per  day  behind 
its  previous  gain. 

No.  116  of  1882,  Lady  Peerless,  1,644  days  old,  weight 
1,880  pounds,  appeared  in  1881  as  1,268  days  old,  weight 
1,520  pounds,  with  a  daily  gain  of  1.19.  The  past  376  days 
she  has  gained  360  pounds,  being  a  daily  gain  of  0.93 
pounds.  Here  then,  is  a  loss  of  twenty-two  per  cent,  in 
gain.  There  are  many  such  cases  in  the  tables,  showing 
the  law  of  gain  in  the  same  animal,  and  that  the  rate 
decreases  as  the  age  increases. 

Cost  of  Production. 

The  managers  of  these  fat-stock  shows  made  a  very 
praiseworthy  addition  to  the  prizes  in  the  last,  under  the 
head  of  cost  of  production.  This  cost  of  production  goes 
to  the  very  root  of  the  matter  ;  and  when  taken  in  connec- 
tion with  law  of  growth,  above  discussed,  it  should  be  the 
key  to  decide  the  true  system  of  feeding.  If  the  young 
animal  makes  a  more  rapid  growth,  and  if  that  growth 
costs  less,  and  if  the  beef  grown  thus  rapidly  is  of  good 
quality,  then  it  is  simply  throwing  away  food  to  feed  the 


COST   OF    PRODUCTION. 


261 


animals   beyond    the  age   producing  the  quality  that  the 
market  demands. 

The  following  table  is  very  instructive  on  this  question 
of  cost  at  different  periods.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  first 
year  produced  a  large  profit,  and  the  value  was  greater  than 
the  cost  at  the  end  of  the  second  year,  but  the  third  year 
c:)st  much  more  than  the  value  of  the  growth,  and  the 
whole  cost  of  the  three  years  was  considerably  more  than 
the  market  price  of  tlie  animals. 

Cost  of  Productiox. 
From  Birth  to  13  Months  of  A(je. 


?» 

02 

. 

J= 

c 

e 

s 

o    . 

Q. 

5 

Name  op  Animal. 

^s 

JS     . 

r  5 

a;2 

^  o 

oS 

®  o 

l-o 

SS 

^ 

^ 

> 

o 

Cts. 

.T:iy,  No.  101 

$31.30 
33.50 

800 

$48.00 
42.60 

3  91 

Experiment • 

710 

4.7.J 

YtiuiiK  Aberdeen 

31.67 

1,000 

60.00 

3.4? 

Kiiiii  of  the  West,  No.  18 

a4.67 

1,000 

(JO.OO 

3  47 

(.'us-;iiis4th,  N.).  2()j^ 

31.47 

1,000 

60.00 

3  15 

Cassiiis  5th.  Nd.  '-^9 

38.15 

1,090 

65  40 

3.50 

Haltie,  No.  44 

19.75 

700 

42.00 

2.08 

Jim  Blaine.  No.  27 

27.50 

950 

57.00 

2  89 

Canadian  Champion,  No.  17 

.33.67 

1,000 

60.00 

3.37 

From  12  to  24  Months  of  Age. 


^ 

, 

_ 

JS 

<M 

^ 

s 

s 

O 

a 

1 

o 

0* 

o 
c 

%t 

1^ 

J. 

'"' 

"  S 

> 

Name  op  Animal. 

ii 

^S. 

!? 

M 

"5  0 

11 

si 

"3  ^ 

%l 

:s 

!> 

^ 

> 

O 

Cts. 

Jim  Blaine 

950 

$57.00 

$37  J^g 

1,.390 

$83.40 

8.,V2 

-lay 

800 

48.00 

oO.:n 

1,370 

82.20 

5  31 

Young  Aberdeen 

1.000 

60  00 

52  12 

1  600 

96  00 

8  68 

Kintc  of  the  West 

1,000 

60.00 

.52.13 

1,600 

96.00 

8.68 

Canadian  Champion 

1,000 

60.00 

52.12 

1,600 

96.00 

8.68 

262 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


Cost  of  Production— Conftnued. 
From  24  to  36  Months  of  Age. 


m 

m 

CO 

m 

03   05 

•o 

JS 

« 

"^ 

o 

s 

o 

O 

o 

o  « 

■3 

£ 

a 

^ 

S 

So 

U) 

Name  of  Animal. 

C* 

T. 

^ 

s^ 

s 

il 

.22 

I" 

li 

^  o 

«  o 

oS 

«o 

-=  o  sa. 

o>» 

^ 

K* 

H 

^ 

> 

0 

Cts. 

Canadian  Champion 

1,600 

$96. 00 

$81.50 

2,250 

$135.00 

12.54 

King  of  the  West 

1,600 

96.00 

81.50 

2,250 

135.00 

12.54 

The  two  steers  fed  to  three  years  old  cost  each  $168.30, 
or  7.48  cents  per  pound.  They  might  bring  this  as  extra 
Christmas  cattle;  but  it  is  evident  that  they  give  a 
better  profit  at  24  months.  Their  market  price  was  then 
$10  per  head  more  than  they  cost,  and  we  have  seen  in  the 
domestic  market  in  England  that  snch  animals,  or  those 
some  months  younger,  are  preferred  by  critical  customers. 

English  View  of  Cost  of  Beef. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  questions  relating  to  Ameri- 
can agriculture  at  the  present  moment,  is  the  cost  of  pro- 
ducing beef  for  export.  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes,  probably  the 
best  scientific  and  practical  authority  in  England  upon 
questions  relating  to  meat  production,  read  an  elaborate 
paper  before  the  East  Berwickshire  Agricultural  Associa- 
tion, in  1879,  a  large  part  of  which  was  devoted  to  the  cost 
of  food  in  the  production  of.  beef.  This  was  incidental  to 
showing  the  cost  of  manure  made  from  cattle  upon  British 
farms.  He  made  a  very  liberal  allowance  for  the  value  of 
the  manure  resulting  from  the  consumption  of  this  food, 
and  then  made  the  pertinent  inquiry,  whether  the  balance 
of  the  cost  of  the  food,  after  deducting  the  value  of  the 
manure,  is  paid  for  by  the  increase  in  weight  of  the  animal. 


COST   OF   BEEF. 


263 


DnCBIFTION. 


PRIZE  CATTLB  AT  SMITHFIELD,  1878. 

Devons  


Average. 
Herefords . 


Average  .. 
Short-horns , 


Average 
Sussex 


Average 

General  average 


PRIZE  CATTLE,  CHICAGO  SOCIETY,  U    S. 

Steers— 4  years  and  over,  1st  prize 

4  years  and  over.  2d  prize 

3  years  and  under,  1st  prize 

3  years  and  under,  2d  prize 

2  years  and  under  3,  Tst  prize  ... 

2  years  and  under  3,  2d  prize I 

1  year  and  under  2,  1st  prize I 

1  year  and  under  2.  2d  prize 

Average I 


NIVERNAIS-CHAROLAIS— FRENCH. 


No.  1. 
No.  2. 
No.  3. 
No.  4. 


Average 

General  average  of  all  

Rotbamsted  adopted  average. 


Weeks. 

116 
167 
215 
165 


165»i 
118;^ 

165;!^ 

221>^ 
178>^ 


171 


120 
160 


172 


153X 

116 
151 
203 
160 


157><r 


162 


271.? 
182.9 
174.3 
i:i8.4 
139.7 
92.9 
95.7 


170.5 


m.8 

15<).4 
160.8 
174  0 


156.5 
163.7 


Lbs. 

1,301 
1,.568 
1.785 
1,456 

1,527X 

1,615 
1,964 
2,085 
1,731 


l,848»i 

1,698 

1.960 

2.3.-)2 

JL«7H 

1,97^ 

1,588 
1,818 
2,390 
1.736 

1,88;^ 


1,808 


2,085 
2,440 
2,115 
2,060 
1.705 
1,600 
1,480 
1.275 


1,&45 


1.478 
1.987 
l.«93 
2,079 


|_1^ 


1,826 


Lbs. 

1.60 
1.34 
1.19 
1.26 


1.35 

1.95 
1.70 
1.34 
1.39 


2.02 
1.75 


1.56 


1.85 

1.96 
1.72 
1.68 
1.55 


1.10 
1.28 
1.65 
1.68 
1.76 
1.63 
2.28 
1.90 


1.57 
1.81 
1.68 
1.71 


1.69     I     12.0 


1.65     I     11.9 

:o.ii 


264  TEEDING   AXIMALS. 

With  a  view  to  furnishing  data  for  the  solution  of  this 
question,  he  gives  this  last  table  relating  to  the  well-fed 
animals  of  several  countries,  including  some  at  the  Chicago 
Fat-Stock  Show.     He  says,  in  reference  to  this  table: 

^'Confining  my  attention  to  cattle,  I  shall  first  endeavor 
to  show,  by  reference  to  published  records  relating  to  ani- 
mals of  certainly  above  average  quality,  and  undoubtedly 
liberally  fed,  what  is  the  i^robable  rate  of  increase  that 
may  be  expected  in  such  cases  ;  and,  secondly,  what  is  the 
average  amount  of  food  required  to  produce  a  given  amount 
of  increase." 

He  complains  that  feeding  experiments  have  not  been 
so  full  as  to  give  all  the  points  required  to  solve  tlio 
question  of  cost.  The  food  or  some  other  element  in  the 
calculation  is  left  out.  As  everything  relating  to  this 
question  is  of  interest  to  the  feeder,  we  quote  what  he  says 
of  the  food  required  to  produce  100  lbs.  of  increase: 

''Although  the  gross  increase  is  less  in  proportion  to  the 
live  weight  as  the  animal  matures,  a  larger  proportion  of 
such  gross  increase  consists  of  carcass  and  of  real  solid 
matter,  and  a  less  proportion  of  offal  and  of  water.  In 
fact,  the  fattening  process  may  be  said  to  consist  in  great 
measure  in  the  displacement  of  water  by  fat.  At  what  cost 
of  food  has  that  increase  been  obtained?  We  have  no  rec- 
ords on  this  point  in  regard  to  any  of  the  animals  referred 
to  in  the  table.  We  must  therefore  rely  upon  other  data 
in  arriving  at  a  decision  on  this  part  of  the  subject.  Our 
own  estimate,  founded  on  all  the  data  at  our  command, 
partly  relating  to  the  recorded  experience  of  others,  and 
partly  to  the  results  of  direct  experiments  of  our  own,  led 
us  many  years  ago  to  conclude  as  follows :  Fattening  oxen, 
liberally  fed  upon  good  food,  composed  of  a  moderate  pro- 
portion of  cake  or  corn,  some  hay  or  straw  chaff,  with 
roots  or  other  succulent  food,  and  well  managed,  will,  on 
the  average,  consume  12  to  lo  lbs.  of  dry  substance  of  such 


COST   OF   GAIN.  265 

mixed  food,  per  100  lbs.  live  weight,  per  week ;  and  they 
should  give  1  lb.  of  increase  for  12  to  13  lbs.  dry  substance 
so  consumed.  In  other  words,  there  will  be  consumed  from 
120  to  130  lbs.  of  the  dry  substance  of  such  mixed  food  per 
1,000  lbs.  live  weight  per  week,  producing  on  the  average 

10  lbs.  of  increase;  and  1,200  to  1,300  lbs.  will  therefore 
be  required  to  yield  100  lbs.  increase  in  live  weight.  If 
the  mixed  food  contain  no  straw  chaff,  and  only  a  moder- 
ate amount  of  hay  chaff,  the  average  amount  of  dry  sub- 
stance consumed  will  be  the  less,  and  the  average  propor- 
tion of  increase  the  more,  or  vice  7jersa.  Accordingly,  we 
have  assumed  that  on  a  liberal  mixture  of  oil-cake,  clover 
chaff,  and  swedes,  as  little  as  1,100  lbs.  dry  substance  may 
be  required  to  produce  100  lbs.  increase,  and  as  much  as 

11  lbs.  increase  may  be  produced  per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight 
per  week.  The  articles  which  you  are  accustomed  to  speak 
^.f  as  dry  foods,  still  contain  some  water.  Thus  cakes  con- 
tain from  one-eighth  to  one-ninth,  and  corn,  hay  and 
straw  about  one-sixth  of  their  weight  of  water ;  while 
swedes  do  not  contain  more  than  10  to  12,  or  mangolds 
more  than  12  to  13  per  cent,  of  really  dry  or  solid  matter; 
but  the  monster  roots  of  which  we  hear  so  much,  some- 
times contain  only  about  two-thirds  as  much  dry  matter  as 
moderately-sized  and  well-matured  roots  should  do.  Of 
really  dry  substance,  such  as  my  estimates  given  above 
require,  1,200  to  1,300 — say  1,250  lbs. — would,  in  round 
numbers,  be  supplied  in  the  following  amounts  of  each  of 
the  several  descriptions  of  food  enumerated,  supposing 
them  to  be  of  fair  average  composition  in  that  respect : 

Amount  of  each  food  containing  1,250  lbs.  dry  matter: 

Cakes 12)^  cwt. 

Corn  or  hay 13         " 

Swedish  turnips 5      tons. 

Mangolds 4}^     " 

"The  question  arises,  what  would  be  the  cost  of  1,250  lbs. 
of  dry  substance,  made  up  of  a  suitable  mixture  of  these 
12 


266  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

various  foods,  to  yield  100  lbs.  increase  in  live  weight,  and 
whether  this  would  be  less  or  more  than  the  100  lbs. 
increase  would  sell  for  ?  Well-bred  and  moderately- 
fattened  oxen  should  yield  58  to  60  per  cent,  carcass  in 
fasted  live  weight;  very  fat  oxen  may  yield  from  05  to  70 
per  cent.  But  of  the  increase  obtained  during  what  may 
be  called  the  fattening  period  of  moderately-fattened  oxen, 
it  may  be  reckoned  that  about  70  per  cent,  will  be  carcass. 
Supposing  you  get  8d.  per  pound  for  this,  the  selling  value 
of  your  100  lbs.  increase  in  live  weight  will  be  46s.  8d. 
Now,  I  think  if  you  try  to  make  up  1,250  lbs.  of  dry  sub- 
stance by  a  suitable  fattening  mixture  of  the  foregoing 
foods,  you  will  find  that  it  will  cost  you  considerably  more 
than  46s.  8d.  Even  if  roots  alone  were  used,  which  would 
not  be  considered  good  fattening  food,  the  cost  would  be 
more  if  they  were  reckoned  at  their  selling  price,  though 
less  if  taken  at  what  is  called  their  ^consuming  value.' 
But  with  no  good  fattening  mixture  of  cake  or  corn,  hay, 
chaff  and  roots  could  1,250  lbs.  of  dry  matter  be  obtained 
for  anything  approaching  the  sum  I  have  estimated  as  the 
value  of  the  increase  it  will  produce.  It  is  further  to  be 
borne  in  mind  that,  weight  for  weight,  store  stock  is  gen- 
erally dearer  than  fat  stock.  You  have  also  to  add  to  the 
cost  of  the  food  the  various  other  charges,  such  as  rent  of 
buildings,  appliances,  attendance,  and  risk.  Taking  all  these 
tilings  into  account,  I  think  it  is  evident  that  there  must 
always  be  a  very  considerable  proportion  of  the  cost  of  feed- 
ing, although  varying  greatly  according  to  circumstances, 
Avhich  must  be  taken  to  represent  the  cost  of  the  manure." 
He  then  speaks  of  his  tables,  published  some  years  ago, 
and  many  times  republished  in  this  country,  in  reference  to 
the  value  of  various  cattle  foods  in  the  production  of  ma- 
nure. He  says  this  table  of  manure  value  was  much  criti- 
cised in  JhJngland,  as  bemg  too  high  an  estimate;  and  as  an 
answer  to  this  he  says : 


VALUE   OF   MAiTURE   OF   FATTEITING   CATTLE.  267 

"Accordingly,  Dr.  Gilbert  and  I  selected  linseed  cake  as 
the  best-known  article  of  purchased  cattle  food;  and  after 
deducting  my  estimate  of  the  manure  value  from  the  cost 
of  the  cake,  we  endeavored  to  calculate  whether  the  remain- 
der of  the  cost  could  be  recovered  in  the  increased  value  of 
the  animal.  The  best  linseed  cake  was  then  quoted  at  £12 
10s.  per  ton,  and  deducting  the  manure  value  as  given  in 
my  table,  namely,  £4  12s.  Gd.,  there  was  left  £7  17s.  6d.  to 
be  charged  against  the  animal;  and  calculation  led  us  to 
the  conclusion  that  it  was  extremely  doubtful  whether  this 
amount  could  be  recovered  in  its  increased  value.  In  fact, 
linseed  cake  appeared  to  us  to  command  what  may  be 
called  a  fancy  price.  At  any  rate,  it  was  quite  certain  that 
it  could  not  be  profitably  used,  if  not  fully  as  much  or 
even  more  than  the  amount  of  my  estimate  were  charged 
against  the  manure.  If  the  same  mode  of  calculation  were 
applied  to  sheep  and  to  pigs,  it  would  be  found,  in  their 
case  also,  that  the  cost  of  their  food  is  more  than  the  value 
ot  the  increase  it  produces." 

This  shows  us  how  difficult  it  must  be  in  England  to 
grow  beef  with  such  dear  food,  even  w^th  the  exceptionally 
high  price  he  mentions  of  about  11  cents,  our  money,  per 
pound  live  weight  for  the  increase.  Dr.  Lawes  has  studied 
this  question  more  carefully  than  any  other  farmer  in 
England,  and  in  examining  the  experiments  of  others  he 
finds  this  most  important  item  almost  universally  left  out 
of  the  statement — the  amount  and  quality  of  the  food  fed 
to  produce  a  given  result,  and  the  weight  of  the  animals 
at  the  commencement  of  feeding  is  usually  unstated.  It 
seems  that  farmers  in  that  country,  usually  regarded  as  in 
advance  of  nearly  all  countries  of  the  world,  are  about  as 
careless  and  inexact  as  their  cousins  on  this  side  of  the 
water.  This  want  of  exactness  in  all  the  details  of  feeding 
experiments  is  almost  universal  with  farmers  everywhere — 
the  weight  of  the  animals  is  often  given  without  the  age ; 


268  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

the  weight  and  age  are  given,  and  no  clue  to  the  food ;  the 
kinds  of  food  may  be  mentioned  and  nothing  said  about 
quantity.  A  complete  experiment  is  seldom  to  be  found, 
having  all  the  elements  stated  necessary  to  determine  the 
cost  of  beef  at  any  age;  and  the  reader  may  be  a  little  sur- 
prised to  find  that  Dr.  Lawes  himself,  m  speaking  above  of 
the  amount  of  dry  matter  in  food  required  for  one  pound 
increase  in  fattening  cattle,  should  not  give  the  proportions 
of  such  food,  that  the  reader  might  know  his  exact  ration. 
He  speaks  of  a  ration  '^  composed  of  a  moderate  proportion 
of  cake  or  corn,  some  hay  or  straw  chaff,  with  roots  or 
other  succulent  food,  and  well  managed,  etc."  This  he 
states  to  have  been  determined  partly  from  experiments  of 
his  own,  and  it  is  hardly  excusable  that  he  should  leave  it 
so  indefinite.  What  is  a  '^moderate  proportion  of  cake  or 
corn?"  A  dozen  farmers  would  very  likely  each  give  dif- 
ferent answers.  He  is  the  most  painstaking  experimenter 
in  England,  and  is  said  to  keep  most  minute  and  accurate 
notes  of  all  details,  but  here  he  leaves  it  to  the  judgment 
of  every  reader  to  determine  the  composition  of  the  food, 
of  which  he  says  123^^  lbs.  is  required  for  1  lb.  of  increase. 
But  if  the  mixed  f<jod  contains  a  liberal  amount  of  oil-cake, 
clover  chaff,  and  swedes,  then  11  lbs.  dry  subsance  of  food 
will  make  1  lb.  of  increase.  You  must  determine  what  is 
''moderate"  and  what  is  ^'liberal"  in  cake  and  corn. 

Dr.  Lawes'  estimate  of  123^  lbs.  dry  substance  of  food  to 
1  lb.  of  gain,  is  no  doubt  an  approximation  to  the  facts  of 
feeding  in  England  and  in  this  country,  although  we  have 
had  a  better  result  than  this  in  several  cases  of  our  own 
feeding,  and  have  examined  a  number  of  other  cases,  in 
which  the  facts  are  authentic,  with  a  higher  result.  We 
will  give  some  of  these,  as  bearing  upon  this  question  of 
tlie  cost  of  beef.  Some  of  these  cases  we  have  reported 
elsewhere,  and  will  here  give  only  a  summary  of  them. 

Mr.  John  Johnston,  late  of  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  emigrating 
to  this  country  from  Scotland  50  years  ago,  and  bringing 


COST  OF   BEEF.  269 

with  him  the  thrifty  habits  of  a  good  farmer  in  his  native 
country,  placed  a  higher  value  upon  the  manure  from  fat- 
tening cattle  than  did  the  American  farmers  around  him. 
He  wished  to  produce  all  the  manure  he  could  for  his 
wheat  crop,  and  thus  resorted  to  the  purchase  of  cattle 
every  year  to  be  fed  upon  his  straw  and  corn  fodder,  with 
grain  as  the  principal  staple  of  the  food.  Knowing  the 
value  of  linseed  oil-cake,  he  fed  this  with  Indian  corn-meal, 
to  make  a  well-balanced  ration,  with  straw  and  a  portion 
of  hay.  When  Mr.  Johnston  put  up  a  lot  of  three-year- 
old  steers  to  feed,  he  began  with  2  lbs.  of  oil-cake  and  3  to 
5  lbs.  of  corn-meal,  and  this  was  increased  gradually  to  4 
lbs.  of  cake  and  8  to  10  lbs.  of  corn-meal.  Sometimes 
wheat  bran  or  pea-meal  was  substituted  for  a  part  of  the 
corn-meal,  and  in  this  way  he  gave  variety  in  the  diet, 
which  is  very  essential  to  steady  thrift.  He  found,  practi- 
cally, that  this  mode  of  feeding  would  give  him  an  increase 
of  from  13^  to  3  lbs.  per  head  per  day,  depending  upon 
breed  and  thrift.  Good  grade  Short-horns  would  occasion- 
ally make  even  more  than  3  lbs.  per  day  for  150  days,  but 
this  rate  of  gain  was  exceptional.  His  average  was  about 
2%  lbs.  per  day  for  many  years.  He  sold  on  an  average,  at 
two  cents  per  pound  more  than  the  purchase  price.  He 
commenced  feeding  some  time  in  October,  and  sold  in 
March.  If  the  steers  weighed  1,000  lbs.  at  the  time  of 
purchase,  and  the  price  was  64  per  hundred,  they  cost  84-0 
per  head ;  and  at  the  end  of  150  days  would,  as  an  average 
result  with  him,  weigh  1,318  lbs.,  and  bring  six  cents,  or 
179.08— nearly  doubling  in  value.  He  fed  of  oil-cake  an 
average  of  3H  lbs.  per  day,  or  525  lbs.  per  head  ;  of  corn- 
meal,  9  lbs.,  or  1,350  lbs.;  of  hay,  8  lbs.,  or  1,200  lbs.;  of 
straw,  ad  libitum,  or  1,500  lbs.  Counting  these  at  average 
rates  of  the  last  18  years  would  give:  Oil-cake,  89.18; 
corn-meal,  813.50;  hay,  86  (straw  not  counted);  in  all, 
828.G8.    This  would  leave  810.40  to  pay  for  labor  and  straw, 


270  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

giving  the  manure  free.  His  cattle  were  often  purchased 
much  lower,  and  oil-cake  was  $10  to  $IS  j^er  ton  during  his 
early  feeding.  Mr.  Johnston  fed  in  an  ordinary  unbattened 
s-table — not  warm.  He  got  his  pay  abundantly  in  his  large 
crops  of  wheat.  It  will  be  seen  here  that  the  store  stock 
cost  less  than  fat  stock,  and  thus  gave  a  margin  of  profit 
by  an  increase  in  the  value  of  the  whole  animal,  otherwise 
Mr.  Johnston's  cattle  would  have  often  been  fed  at  a  loss. 
It  will  be  observed,  also,  that  if  the  dry  substance  of  the 
food  is  all  counted,  including  straw,  it  will  amount  to  26.23 
lbs.  per  day;  and  Lawes'  formula  of  123^  lbs.  to  the  pound 
gain  is  26.40  lbs.,  proving  very  closely  in  this  case  the  cor- 
rectness of  his  estimate. 

The  author  visited  Mr.  Otis  S.  Lewis,  of  Orleans  County, 
N.  Y.,  in  1870,  who  fed  upon  a  somewhat  different  plan. 
His  plan  was  to  buy,  in  the  Buffiilo  cattle  yards,  about  the 
first  of  December,  thrifty  bullocks  from  the  West,  averag- 
ing 1,200  to  1,300  lbs.  He  selected,  as  far  as  he  could, 
cattle  that  had  been  handled,  so  tliat  they  miglit  take 
kindly  to  a  warm  stable.  He  bought  them  in  a  moderately 
fat  condition,  and  ffed  them  about  one  hundred  days,  in  a 
warm  stable,  tied  in  a  roomy  stall,  and  they  were  not 
turned  out  until  sold.  The  daily  ration  was  made  up  of 
5  lbs.  of  early-cut  and  nicely-cured  clover  hay,  15  lbs.  of 
straw,  9  lbs.  of  corn-meal,  and  one-half  bushel  of  swede 
turnij^s,  pulped  and  mixed  with  the  short-cut  hay,  straw, 
and  .meal,  and  then  all  thoroughly  steamed  together. 
Sometimes  4  lbs.  of  wheat  middlings  were  substituted  for  so 
much  of  the  corn-meal.  This  ration  came  out  of  the  steam 
box  with  a  most  savory  and  appetizing  smell,  and  the  cattle 
ate  it  with  great  relish.  His  lot  of  25  head  at  this  time 
cost  six  cents,  and  averaged  1,250  lbs.  per  head.  At  the 
end  of  one  hundred  days  they  averaged  1,550  lbs.,  having 
gained  3  lbs.  per  day.  They  sold  at  7^^  cents,  bringing  an 
average  price  of  $120.12,  and,  costing  $75  per  head,  gave  an 


COST  OF   BEEF.  271 

increase  in  sale  price  of  $45.12.  He  estimated  the  cost  of 
food,  besides  straw,  at  $20  per  head,  and  the  actual  cost  of 
labor  at  $1,  leaving  $20.12  to  pay  for  straw  and  profit.  In 
other  years  the  cost  and  sale  price  of  the  cattle  were  differ- 
ent, but  the  result  was  nearly  similar.  This  ration  seemed 
to  have  the  same  effect  upon  the  cattle  as  the  most  succu- 
lent grass,  and  produced  a  gain  nearly  equal  to  the  most 
favorable  pasturage  at  the  best  season.  Mixing  pulped 
turnips  with  other  food,  and  steaming,  diffused  the  odor 
through  the  mu^s,  rendering  the  food  so  palatable  that  the 
animal  ate  with  a  zest  to  the  limit  of  its  digestion.  It 
will  be  noted  in  this  case  that  the  total  dry  substance  of 
all  the  food  taken  is  only  28  lbs.,  which  is  only  9.33  lbs.  of 
dry  food  to  1  lb.  gain,  instead  of  12K  lbs.,  according  to 
Lawes'  formula.  Is  this  the  result  of  cooking — rendering 
so  much  larger  percentage  of  food  digestible?  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  quality  of  the  food  is  hardly  as  good  as 
that  fed  by  Mr.  Johnston.  But  there  is  another  element 
to  be  taken  into  account — that  of  a  warm  stable — which 
would  reduce  the  food  required  to  sustain  animal  heat. 
Both  of  these  facts  may  perhaps  account  for  the  difference. 
The  author  has  some  cases  to  give  of  his  own  feeding. 
He  bought  40  head  of  small  cattle,  of  two  and  a  half  and 
three  and  a  half  years  old,  that  had  been  fed  so  poorly  that 
they  were  very  light  for  their  age,  and,  although  healthy, 
many  of  them  were  in  an  unthrifty  condition.  The  aver- 
age weight  of  the  lot  was  only  850  lbs.  They  were  placed 
in  a  warm  stable,  and  fed  for  sixty  days  before  they  got 
into  a  thrifty  condition.  During  this  sixty  days  they 
gained  on  an  average  only  35  lbs.  per  head.  They  were 
then  put  upon  the  following  average  ration  for  90  days: 
oil-meal,  2  lbs.;  wheat  middlings,  4  lbs.;  corn-meal,  6  lbs.; 
hay,  5  lbs.;  straw,  11  lbs.,  per  head  per  day.  The  oil-meal, 
corn-meal  and  bran  were  mixed  with  the  short-cut  straw, 
and  all  thoroughly  steamed  together.     This  was  given  in 


273  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

two  feeds,  morning  and  night,  and  5  lbs.  of  long  hay  was 
given  at  noon.  During  the  last  sixty  days  one  gallon  of 
cheap  molasses  was  dissolved  in  the  water  for  wetting  the 
straw  for  the  steamed  ration.  This  was  a  small  amount  of 
sweet  to  be  diffused  through  90  bushels,  but  it  added  so 
decidedly  to  its  flavor  as  to  stimulate  the  appetite.  These 
steers  gained,  on  an  average,  201M  lbs.  per  head,  or  2.23 
lbs.  per  day;  this  is  equal  to  10.67  lbs.  of  dry  substance  of 
food  to  each  pound  gain  in  live  weight.  This  is  14  per 
cent,  under  Lawes'  estimate  of  food  to  one  of  gain.  This 
may  also  be  owing  to  a  warm  stable,  and  cooking  the  food. 
A  few  years  later,  we  fed  10  head  of  three-year-old  steers 
for  100  days,  keeping  an  accurate  account  of  the  daily 
ration,  and  their  increase  each  30  days,  for  the  whole 
period.  They  were  of  grade  Short-horn  blood  (sired  by  a 
seven-eighths  blood  bull),  had  been  well  raised,  as  that 
term  is  generally  understood,  and  accustomed  from  calf- 
hood  to  be  handled  and  stabled.  They  averaged  1,210  lbs. 
per  head,  and  cost  4M  cents,  or  $51.45  per  head.  Being  in 
a  thrifty  condition,  and  accustomed  to  good  shelter,  they 
took  kindly  to  their  new  quarters  when  put  up,  November 
20th.  This  lot  of  steers,  being  in  condition  for  rapid  fat- 
tening, we  gave  the  following  combined  ration,  made  by 
grinding  together  10  bushels  of  corn  (560  lbs.),  8  bushels 
of  oats  and  peas,  grown  together  (384  lbs.),  and  1  bushel  of 
flax-seed  (56  lbs.)— making  1,000  lbs.  This  is  the  propor- 
tion, and,  when  evenly  mixed  and  ground  fine,  furnishes  a 
fattening  ration  most  complete.  This  ration,  then,  cost 
$1.10  per  100  lbs.  The  ration  of  grain  was  increased  grad- 
ually from  10  lbs.  up  to  15  lbs.  per  head,  per  day,  and  tlie 
average  was  13M  lbs.  per  day.  This  was  mixed  with  2K 
bushels  of  short-cut  straw,  with  2  ounces  of  salt,  all  well 
steamed  together,  as  the  daily  ration  of  each  steer,  given  in 
two  feeds,  morning  and  evening,  with  6  lbs.  of  long  hay  at 
noon.     This  proportion  of  flax-seed  makes  the  ration  just 


WHOLE   COST  OF   BULLOCK.  273 

laxative  enough  for  health,  and  its  oil  is  also  worth  all  it 
costs  in  laying  on  fat.  The  corn  is  very  rich  in  starch,  and 
the  peas,  oats  and  flax-seed  in  albuminoids;  and  the  straw- 
is  so  softened  by  the  steaming,  and  so  permeated  with  the 
flavor  of  the  grain,  as  to  give  it  a  fine  relish  for  the  steers. 
The  increase  of  the  steers  in  live  weight  was  300  lbs.  per 
head,  or  3  lbs.  per  day.  These  steers  sold  for  G14  cents  live 
weight;  and  the  account  stood  thus: 

Dr. 

10  steers,  12.100  lbs.,  at  4^  cents $544.50 

13,250  lbs.  of  grain,  at  §1. 10 145.75 

6,000  lbs.  of  hay,  at  00  cents 30.00 

13,500  lbs.  of  straw,  at  40  cents .54.00 

$780.25 
Cr. 
By  10  steers,  15,100  lbs.,  at  6)^  ^ents 943.75 

Balance  to  pay  labor  and  profit $1GS.50 

Here  the  amount  of  dry  substance  in  the  food  is  only 
9.51  lbs.  for  one  pound  increase,  or  24  per  cent,  less  than 
Lawes'  estimate ;  and  here,  again,  we  see  the  effect  of  cook- 
ing and  a  warm  stable.  It  is  also  evident  that  such  thrifty 
steers  will  pay  for  feeding,  while  cattle  of  the  slow-growing 
class  are  always  fed  at  a  loss.  In  this  last  case  everything 
fed  is  charged  at  full  prices,  and  yet  the  increase  in  weight 
fully  pays  all,  with  a  respectable  balance.  It  is  true  that 
the  3,000  lbs.  increase,  at  GM  cents  would  not  pay  for  the 
food;  but  this  increase  renders  the  whole  carcass  worth  1^ 
cents  per  pound  more,  and  this  is  a  legitimate  part- of  the 
increase.  Here  the  actual  cost  of  food  for  each  pound 
increase  was  7.83  cents;  but  Mr.  Lawes  says,  that  at  this 
stage  of  feeding  70  per  cent,  of  this  increase  consists  of 
valuable  carcass,  and  this  would  render  it  worth  one-sixth 
more  than  the  average  of  the  whole  carcass. 

Whole  Cost  of  the  Bullock. 

But  we  can  never  arrive  at  the  cost  of  beef  until  we 
include  the  cost  of  the  animal  from  birth  to  the  last  day  of 


274  FEEDING   AN-IMALS. 

feeding.  The  simple  cost  of  food  during  the  fattening 
period  is  very  inadequate  data  for  determining  the  cost  of 
the  carcass  at  the  end.  Besides,  the  proper  system  of  feed- 
ing— that  of  early  maturity — pushing  the  animal  forward 
steadily  to  the  market  condition — will  undoubtedly  show  a 
more  favorable  result  than  that  of  feeding  through  the  fat- 
tening period.  All  experiments  to  that  end  have  shown 
that  it  costs  less  to  put  a  hundred  pounds  upon  the  calf 
than  upon  the  yearling — less  to  put  a  hundred  pounds 
upon  the  yearling  than  upon  the  two-year-old — less  upon 
tlie  two-year-old  than  the  three-year-old,  and  so  on.  It 
also  costs  less  to  put  a  hundred  pounds  upon  a  thrifty  ani- 
mal of  any  age  than  upon  an  unthrifty  one.  We  cannot, 
therefore,  make  much  valuable  progress  in  determining  the 
cost  of  beef  until  the  cost  of  feeding  a  given  number  of 
calves  shall  be  accurately  noted  from  birth  till  they  are 
matured  and  ready  for  the  butcher.  These  will  be  com- 
plete cases — all  others  partial  and  unsatisfactory.  The 
cases  given  at  the  Chicago  Fat-Stock  Show  for  1882  are  in 
point  as  far  as  they  go,  and  we  gave,  on  page  250,  the  state- 
ment of  Mr.  Stanford,  of  England,  as  reported  in  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Journal^  of  the  cost  of  a  ''baby  bullock"  71 
weeks  old,  specifying  the  food  for  each  period  of  feeding. 
And  this  is  based  upon  the  accurately-observed  and  noted 
facts  of  feeding  many  such  young  bullocks.  Mr.  Stanford 
finds  the  cost  to  be  $107.35  for  71  weeks,  and  he  sells  his 
*' baby  bullocks,"  on  the  average,  for  $108.  He  finds  his 
profit  in  the  manure.  We  estimated  the  cost  of  raising 
such  animal  in  this  country  at  $65.  This  was  the  differ- 
ence in  the  cost  of  food.  If  these  animals  gained  at  the 
same  rate  as  the  prize  young  animals  at  the  Chicago  Fat- 
Stock  Show,  they  would  Aveigh  about  1,150  lbs.  alive.  This 
would  make  the  cost  per  pound  about  b}i  cents — a  price 
that  the  home  market  would  always  warrant.  It  may  be 
considered  as  a  proof  of  the  unpractical  character  of  the 


GROWING   CATTLfi   J'OR   BEEF.  2lf5 

management  of  our  agricultural  college  farms  that  not  one 
has  yet  given  us  a  careful  experiment,  or,  in  fact,  any  ex- 
periment, to  show  the  cost  of  raising  a  bullock.  These 
farms  are  designed  for  this  special  work,  in  regions  where 
cattle-feeding  is  one  of  the  principal  elements  of  agricul- 
ture. Here  should  be  all  the  facilities  for  conducting 
accurate  experiments,  and  just  the  talent  required  to  make 
them  in  all  respects  complete.  How  many  years  must  yet 
elapse  before  these  institutions  shall  comprehend  their 
mission  ? 

Grov/ing  Cattle  for  Beef. 

When  the  farmer  shall  fully  understand  that  all  his  suc- 
cess m  cattle-feeding  must  depend  upon  skill  in  breeding 
and  feeding,  he  will  then  commence  the  study  of  this  sub- 
ject in  earnest.  He  will  not  expect  to  find  a  breed  with 
such  wonderful  characteristics  as  to  grow  into  capacious 
forms  of  beauty  and  profit  without  an  equivalent  expendi- 
ture of  food. 

We  have  treated  of  feeding  young  animals,  and  especially 
the  calf,  and  made  some  estimates  of  the  cost  of  raising  a 
first-rate  calf  to  one  year  old.  We  have  illustrated  the  law 
of  growth,  by  English  examples,  and  by  the  premiums 
awarded  at  Chicago  on  the  '^cost  of  production,"  quoting 
also  from  the  experiments  of  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes  on  the  cost  of 
food  to  produce  a  pound  live-weight,  illustrated  by  English, 
French  and  American  cattle,  all  proving,  conclusively,  the 
economy  of  early  maturity. 

We  now  propose  to  take  these  animals  of  a  year  or  more 
old,  and  discuss  their  feeding  till  ripened  for  the  market. 
And  this  subject  grows  more  and  more  important  every 
year.  The  history  of  the  exportation  of  bf.ef  to  England 
during  the  last  few  years,  fully  realizes  the  reasonable 
expectations  of  American  cattle-growers.  And,  what  ren- 
ders the  situation  the  more  pleasant,  the  English  farmers 
are  becoming  quite  reconciled  to  this  importation  of  dressed 


276  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

beef,  because  it  enables  them  to  prevent  the  importation  of 
live  cattle  from  the  Continent,  and  thus  prevent  the  de- 
struction of  their  herds  by  disease.  Here  the  American 
feeder  may  meet  the  English  farmer  in  competition,  at 
Liverpool  or  London,  on  even  more  than  equal  terms,  be- 
cause the  cost  of  transportation  is  much  less  than  the 
advantage  possessed  by  the  American  farmer  in  cheaper 
land,  and,  consequently,  cheaper  food.  Everything  seems 
to  point  to  the  rapid  growth  of  this  trade  in  fresh  meat 
and  live  cattle  to  be  slaughtered  on  arrival;  and  it  is  highly 
probable  that  our  cattle  products  will,  in  a  few  years,  reach 
a  figure  in  our  exports  little,  if  any,  less  than  one  hundred 
millions.  We  have,  therefore,  the  greatest  incentive  to 
improve  our  process  of  cattle-feeding,  that  we  may  lay  the 
foundation  for  the  most  provident  and  profitable  system  of 
tillage. 

Home-Bred   Cattle. 

Although  breeding  is  not  included  in  the  plan  we  had 
laid  out,  yet  judicious  management  of  the  animals  is  one  of 
the  primary  considerations  required  in  successful  feeding. 
Kind  treatment  and  growth,  gentleness  and  the  graceful 
lines  of  animal  beauty,  are  all  closely  related  to  each  other. 
The  skillful  feeder  must  study  the  effect  of  excitement 
upon  the  animal  system,  and  of  excessive  muscular  exer- 
tion upon  the  deposit  of  fat.  When  he  learns  that  excite- 
ment will  cause  a  cow  to  secrete  milk  almost  devoid  of 
cream,  he  will  see  that  the  steer  cannot  deposit  fat  when 
its  nervous  system  is  disturbed.  Nervous  excitement  in 
the  human  race  is  known  as  always  opposed  to  a  fleshy 
habit.  Nervous  excitement  seems  to  consume  very  rapidly 
the  fat  of  the  body.  "  Laugh  and  grow  fat,"  has  become  a 
proverb.  So  the  quiet,  easy,  undisturbed  animal  makes  a 
good  use  of  all  its  surplus  food  in  laying  on  flesh  and  fat. 
How  very  important,  then,  that  the  feeder  should  rear  all 
his   animals   in   the   atmosphere   of    kindness — that   they 


HOME-BRED    CATTLE.  277 

should  regard  his  presence  with  pleasure — and  no  rough- 
ness be  used  among  them.  Ill-temper  in  a  herdsman  may 
be  almost  as  destructive  to  profits  in  cattle-feeding  as 
pleuro-pneumonia  in  the  herd.  Home-bred  animals,  treated 
with  this  full  measure  of  kindness,  and  fed  intelligently, 
will  make  a  steady  growth  from  the  beginning  to  the  last 
day  of  ripening  for  market.  It  requires  several  months  for 
cattle  in  a  strange  place  to  get  over  the  nervous  excitement 
consequent  on  the  change.  '  This  is  the  strong  argument 
for  raising  your  own  animals.  They  are  kept  on  the  same 
plan  through  the  whole  period — no  new  habits  to  learn, 
and,  consequently,  no  checks  in  growth.  The  same  system 
of  full-feeding,  described  in  previous  pages,  will  continue 
through  the  second  year  of  feeding  on  the  early-maturity 
system,  which  endeavors  to  fit  cattle  for  market  in  24  to  30 
months.  This  can  only  be  done  where  the  feeder  raises  his 
own  animals,  and  supplies  them  with  abundant  and  appro- 
priate food  from  the  first  to  the  last  day  of  his  ownership. 

Summer  Feedii^g. 

Farmers  regard  this  period  in  feeding  as  the  most  favor- 
able and  economical.  It  is  no  doubt  the  most  favorable 
for  producing  growth,  not  only  because  succulent  grass  is 
the  food,  but  the  warm  season  is  more  favorable  for  laying 
on  flesh  and  fat  than  the  cold  season,  because  so  much  less 
food  is  required  to  keep  up  animal  heat.  But  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  feeding  in  summer  actually  costs  less 
than  in  winter,  because,  as  a  general  rule,  the  whole  coun- 
try over,  it  takes  three  times  as  many  acres  to  summer  the 
stock  as  to  winter  it;  and  only  on  the  supposition  that  the 
labor  in  preparing  the  winter  food  costs  more  than  the 
capital  invested  in  the  extra  land  used  for  pasturing,  can  it 
be  considered  more  economicn).  Many  of  the  best  cattle- 
feeders,  both  in  the  United  .States  and  Europe,  do  not  con- 
sider it  economical  to  use  so  much  land  for  grazing  cattle. 


278  FEEDIiTG   AKIMALS. 

and,  therefore,  have  sought  to  reduce  this  by  soiling,  par- 
tially or  wholly,  the  stock  in  summer;  but  this  question  of 
soiling  we  have  considered  in  Chapter  VII,  and  here  we 
will  discuss  the 

Management  of  Pastures. 

A  variety  of  food  is  as  important  in  pasturing  as  in  stall- 
feeding,  and  those  pastures  having  the  greatest  variety  of 
grasses  are  the  best.  Some  old  pastures  contain  a  large 
number  of  varieties,  each  having  its  peculiar  qualities  of 
nutriment,  aroma  and  flavor.  Such  old  pastures  produce 
the  finest  flavored  beef,  mutton  and  milk.  Too  little  care 
is  taken  in  seeding  for  pasture  to  select  a  sufficient  variety. 
Sometimes  only  one  grass,  and  that  not  the  best  for  pasture, 
although  unsurpassed  for  hay — timothy — is  sown.  Others, 
more  liberal,  sow  red  clover  and  timothy.  Both  of  these 
should  be  used  in  any  selection  of  pasture  grasses.  Timo- 
thy, with  all  its  excellence  as  a  hay  crop,  does  not  stand 
constant  cropping  off  by  animals  as  well  as  many  others. 
Clover  furnishes  a  large  amount  of  most  excellent  pastur- 
age, being  rich  in  all  the  elements  of  growth,  and  starting 
again  quickly  after  being  cut  or  eaten  off. 

Blue-grass  or  June-grass  {Poa  2)ratensis)  is  native  to  tne 
country,  grows  over  a  wide  range,  and  has  no  superior  as  a 
pasture-grass.  It  is  seen  in  its  greatest  luxuriance  and  per- 
fection in  warm,  rich,  strong  limestone  soils,  and  in  the 
valleys  west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains.  It  produces 
very  early  herbage,  and,  when  kept  fed  off,  remains  fresh 
till  frost,  and,  under  light  snows,  furnishes  a  winter  pastur- 
age. It  stands  close-feeding  remarkably  well,  its  creeping 
or  stoloniferous  root  forming  an  impervious  network  of 
roots. 

Flat-stalked  blue-grass,  or  wire-grass  {Poa  compressa),  is 
an  early,  low  grass,  common  in  the  Middle  and  Northern 
States.  It  is  a  very  nutritious  grass,  and,  when  cut  early, 
makes  excellent  hay,  but  in  small  quantity;  yet  its  greatest 


PASTURE   GRASSES.  279 

value  is  as  a  pasture-grass,  as  it  covers  the  ground,  and, 
when  fed  close,  will  furnish  much  green  food.  It  is  also 
very  tenacious  of  life,  and  will  stick  to  a  field  when  it  gets 
rooted;  thus  becoming  a  nuisance  in  a  cultivated  field,  and 
requiring  three  or  four  plo wings  to  eradicate  ;  but  in  per- 
manent pastures  it  is  very  desirable. 

Rough-stalked  meadow-grass  {Poa  trivialis)  is  also  an  ex- 
cellent pasture-grass,  and  thrives  well  in  shade.  Its  creeping 
root  enables  it  to  stand  tramping  by  stock.  As  a  meadow- 
grass  alone,  it  is  sometimes  injured  by  a  hot  sun  after  cut- 
ting, but  when  mixed  in  with  a  variety  of  pasture-grasses, 
it  is  not  injured  by  cropping  in  hot  weather. 

Meadow  fescue  {Festuca  pratensis)  is  a  foreign  gras^;.  1)iit 
has  become  acclimated  in  this  country,  is  relished  by  cattle 
in  pasture  or  as  hay — grows  from  three  to  four  feet  high  in 
meadow,  and  has  not  been  as  well  tested  as  it  should  be  in 
pasture. 

Sheep  fescue  (Feshica  ovina)  is  a  pasture-grass  much 
esteemed  on  dry,  sandy  and  rocky  soils,  on  mountains. 
It  forms  the  principal  part  of  the  sheep-pastures  of  the 
highlands  of  Scotland,  where  the  shepherds  have  the  high- 
est opinion  of  its  nutritiousness  and  value  for  their  flocks. 
The  Tartars  seek  an  encampment  where  this  grass  is  most 
abundant.  There  must  be  many  locations  in  this  country 
where  it  will  have  a  high  value  for  pasture.  It  grows 
somewhat  in  bunches. 

Orchard-grass  [Dactylis  glomerata)  is  well  adapted  for 
pasturage,  and  on  rich,  inclining  to  heavy  soils,  will  pro- 
duce a  large  amount  of  excellent  green  food.  It  must  be 
kept  eaten  close,  and  not  allowed  to  get  large,  as  it  then 
becomes  woody.  It  springs  up  very  quickly  after  being 
eaten  off,  and  will  thus  afford  a  constant  j^asturage  througli 
the  whole  season.  This  grass  is  much  inclined  to  grow  in 
tussocks,  and  leave  vacant  spaces  to  be  filled   by  other 


^80 


FEEDIITG   ANIMALS. 


Red-top  or  herds-grass  {Agrostis  vulgaris)  delights  in  a 
moist  soil,  and  with  this  grows  well  on  a  soil  of  almost 
any  texture.  It  should  not  be  omitted  in  a  pasture  soil 
fitted  to  it.  Although  it  is  not  quite  as  nutritious  as  June- 
grass,  yet  it  makes  good  pasture,  and  very  good  stock  hay. 

Sweet-scented  vernal  grass  {Anthro:mntUum  odoratiivi)  is 
by  some  considered  an  excellent  pasture-grass,  which  ex- 
hales a  most  agreeable  perfume,  and  is  often  found  in  the 
hay  of  the  Eastern  States.  It  is  said  to  give  an  agreeable 
flavor  to  milk,  and  assists  in  improving  the  flavor  of  beef 
grown  upon  it  with  other  grasses.  This  grass  aflbrds  both 
early  and  late  pasturage,  aud  flourishes  best  in  a  dry,  sandy 
or  gravelly  loam.  Some  assert  that  cattle  will  not  eat  it  in 
pasture,  and  that  it  is  not  valuable  for  hay,  but  the  analysis 
given  of  it  on  page  153  shows  it  equal  to  red-top.  It  has  a 
good  reputation  as  a  pasture-grass  with  many  careful  ob- 
servers. It  starts  quick  after  cutting,  and  is  thus  consid- 
ered valuable  for  lawns. 

There  are  many  grasses  natural  to  the  Missouri  River 
region  and  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  some  of  which  will 
be  found  in  our  tables  of  analyses  on  pages  146-48, 
among  which  are  Andropogon  furcatus,  called  blue-joint, 
which  is  said  to  compose  about  40  per  cent,  of  the  grass  in 
Missouri  River  region,  and  one-sixth  of  the  grass  in  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region;  Andro2:)ogon  scoparions,  called 
broom-grass,  occupying  some  20  per  cent,  of  the  former 
and  10  per  cent,  of  the  latter  region ;  Sorghum  nutans, 
called  wood-grass,  is  also  largely  found  in  these  regions. 
The  buff'alo-grass  {BucJdoe  dndyloides),  of  which  so  much 
is  said  in  praise,  covers  only  about  one- twentieth  part  of 
these  regions.  Sheep  fescue  is  said  to  cover  some  20  per 
cent,  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region. 

An  old  pasture  has  many  more  grasses  than  here  enum- 
erated among  the  cultivated  grasses,  and  the  greater  the 
variety  the  better  for  the  thrift  of  the  cattle. 


TEMPORARY    PASTURES.  281 

As  a  further  aid  to  understanding  the  individual  value 
of  these  grasses  we  refer  to  the  analyses  of  them  given  on 
pages  153-7. 

The  whole  list  of  grasses  above  described  can  only  be 
used  in  permanent  pastures,  and  for  these  too  great  a 
variety  of  successful  grasses  cannot  be  sown.  We  have  a 
great  number  of  natural  grasses  in  this  country  which  have 
never  been  tested  in  cultivation,  but  from  which  many 
might,  no  doubt,  be  selected  to  enrich  our  permanent 
pastures. 

But  we  must  have  also  in  our  rotation  tillage. 

Temporary  Pastures. 

In  the  older-settled  States  there  are  comparatively  few 
permanent  pastures,  except  on  land  too  rough  or  hilly  to 
cultivate,  or  on  woodland  pastures.  These  have  usually 
seeded  themselves,  but  they  may  be  benefited  by  sowing 
grass-seeds  very  early  in  spring  or  late  in  the  fall  over  the 
spaces  not  well  covered  with  grass.  For  this  purpose  red- 
top,  wire-grass  [Poa  comj^^^ssa)  and  orchard-grass  may  be 
sown.  Mix  them  together  in  equal  proportion,  and  sow  at 
the  rate  of  15  pounds  per  acre.  If  this  is  dressed  after 
sowing  with  3  bushels  of  wood-ashes  or  one  bushel  of  land- 
plaster  to  the  acre,  the  seeding  and  dressing  are  likely  to 
much  improve  the  pasturage. 

Temporary  pastures  are  varied  according  to  the  methods 
of  tillage.  It  is  very  common  to  till  land  for  the  various 
grain  and  cultivated  crops  for  8  or  ]0  years,  then  lay  it 
down  to  pasture-grasses  for  10  or  more  years,  allowing  it  to 
recover  for  another  period  of  grain  tillage.  We  cannot 
say  that  we  quite  approve  of  this  plan,  but  where  such 
practice  obtains,  or  where  pastures  are  laid  down  for  10  to 
15  years,  a  larger  number  of  grasses  should  be  sown  than 
on  pastures  for  a  shorter  period.  The  following  grasses 
and  clovers  may  be  used:     Timothy  8  lbs.;  medium  red 


282  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

clover  6  lbs.;  Alsike  clover  3  lbs.;  June-grass  {Poa  pra- 
tensis)  5  lbs.;  red-top  5  lbs.;  orchard-grass  5  lbs.,  and  flat- 
stalked  blue-grass  (Port  compressa)  4  lbs. — all  sown  in  spring. 
These,  sown  upon  an  acre  should  give  a  good  seeding.  The 
timothy  and  clovers  Avill  give  a  crop  the  first  year,  Avhich  it 
is  best,  generally,  to  mow  and  not  pasture  the  first  season, 
as  pasturing  is  likely  to  injure  the  young  grass.  Timothy 
does  not  stand  close  cropping  and  will  not  probably  last 
beyond  the  second  or  third  year,  but  the  other  grasses  will 
be  well  established  before  that  and  the  timothy  will  not  be 
missed. 

This  pasture,  if  the  land  be  in  good  condition,  will  go 
on  satisfactorily  to  the  time  of  plowing  again.  But  in  the 
grain  districts  the  rotation  is  short,  the  land  remaining  in 
grass  only  from  one  to  three  years.  In  this  case,  only 
timothy  and  clover  are  sown,  and  in  many  districts  only 
clover.  The  clover  plant,  with  its  long  tap  root,  reaches 
down  into  the  subsoil  and  attracts  all  the  soluble  pUmt- 
food  within  reach  and  brings  it  up  to  enrich  the  surface- 
soil.  The  root  of  timothy  does  not  go  much  below  the 
working-soil,  and  consequently  does  not  enrich  the  soil 
like  clover.  The  weight  of  clover-roots,  to  be  plowed 
under,  is  considerably  more  than  the  crop  above  ground, 
and  this,  is  mostly  the  contribution  of  the  subsoil.  This 
renders  it  plain  why  clover  is  chosen  to  prepare  the  soil  for 
a  wheat  crop.  Clover  also  becomes  a  profitable  crop,  cut- 
ting from  six  to  twelve  tons  of  green  food  or  from  one  and 
a  half  to  three  tons  of  hay.  After  the  first  summer  clover 
stands  pasturing  well  as  long  as  it  lasts.  Alsike  clover  is  a 
perennial  plant,  and  is  excellent  for  pasture. 

If  the  land  is  to  remain  in  grass  or  clover  only  two  years, 
then  timothy  10  lbs.  and  medium  clover  10  to  15  lbs.  will 
be  all  the  seed  required,  or  if  clover  alone  is  to  be  sown, 
then  20  to  24  pounds  will  be  required.  If  the  land  is  to 
remain  in  grass  five  years,  then  10  lbs.  of  timothy,  12  lbs. 


FULL-FEEDING    IN"    SUMMER.  283 

of  June-grass  {Poa  prafoisis),  10  lbs.  medium  clover.  6  lbs. 
Alsike  clover,  should  be  sown. 

We  have  given  only  a  few  of  the  grasses  that  may  be 
used  in  pasture;  but  deem  it  better  to  give  a  few  that  may 
be  easily  obtained  than  a  larger  list,  many  of  which  are  not 
in  the  market.  Pastures  being  the  general  reliance  for 
feeding  cattle  in  summer,  particular  attention  should  al- 
ways be  given  to  their  condition  and  the  quality  of  the 
food  they  furnish.  We  wish  to  point  out  the  great  error, 
too  often  committed  by  farmers,  of  compelling  cattle  to 
take  what  they  can  get  in  the  pasture,  whether  it  affords 
sufficient  nutriment  to  keep  up  a  full  and  steady  growth 
or  not.  It  often  happens,  in  very  dry  seasons,  and  some- 
times in  very  wet  ones,  that  the  grass  is  quite  inadequate 
to  produce  a  vigorous  growth  ;  and,  lucking  their  full 
ration,  the  cattle  make  so  little  progress,  that  this  most 
favorable  season  is  practically  lost — the  gain  being  much 
less  than  the  value  of  the  pasture.  Every  consideration  of 
economy  demands 

Full-Feedixg  i^-^  Summer. 

That  this  statement  may  be  fully  understood,  let  us  con- 
sider the  circumstances.  Much  of  the  food  of  support  is 
required  to  keep  up  animal  heat;  and  when  the  tempera- 
ture is  70  degrees,  it  requires  only  food  enough  to  raise 
this  temperature  to  100  degrees,  or  to  overcome  a  difference 
of  30  degrees  between  the  atmosphere  and  blood-heat. 
Now  the  fall  and  winter  seasons  will  average  a  temperature 
of  about  40  degrees  in  the  Northern  and  Western  States, 
and,  consequent!}^,  the  temperature  must  be  raised  60  de- 
grees to  reach  blood-heat;  thus  requiring  as  much  again 
food  to  keep  up  animal  heat  in  the  cold  as  in  the  warm 
season.  This  is  a  large  margin  in  favor  of  summer- 
feeding,  and  every  farmer  should  make  the  most  of  it. 
How  short-sighted,  then,  is  that  policy  which  keeps  cattle 


284  FEEDIIJ^G    ANIMALS. 

upon  scanty  food  in  summer,  expecting  to  do  the  heavy 
feeding  in  winter ! 

Another  consideration  of  importance,  favoring  full-feed- 
ing in  summer,  is  the  fact  that  succulent  grass  is  a  great 
promoter  of  health,  and  grain-feeding,  in  connection  with 
grass,  is  not  so  likely  to  disturb  the  digestive  functions  as 
grain-feeding  with  dry  fodder.  Nature  furnishes  its  suc- 
culent food  for  animals  combined  with  75  per  cent,  of 
water,  which  has  a  sedative  and  cooling  effect  upon  the 
stomach  and  alimentary  canal.  Heavy  grain-feeding  tends 
to  produce  unnatural  heat  and  fever  in  the  stomach,  and, 
when  given  with  dry  fodder,  this  tendency  is  not  suf- 
ficiently counteracted;  but  a  grain  ration,  with  scanty 
pasture,  seems  exactly  to  supply  the  deficiency  and  produce 
a  healthy  growth.  It  is,  therefore,  entirely  safe  to  feed  a 
small  grain  ration  upon  pasture,  and,  when  done  judiciously 
and  systematically,  it  will  produce  nearly  twice  the  gain, 
in  live  Aveight,  as  the  same  amount  fed  in  cold  weather. 

"^^he  reader  will  remember  that  it  takes  about  two-thirds 
of  a  full  ration  for  the  food  of  support,  or  to  supply  ani- 
mal heat  and  waste,  and  the  other  third  is  the  food  of  pro- 
duction. This  food  of  production  gives  all  the  profit 
which  can  be  realized.  Up  to  that  point,  all  is  expendi- 
ture without  profit.  This  fact  applies  as  well  to  summer 
as  winter-feeding.  When  we  consider  that  the  growth  or 
increase  comes  from  half  the  amount  of  food  required  to 
support  the  animal,  how  unwise  it  must  be  to  withhold 
tliis  small  proportion  of  food,  and  thus  receive  nothing  for 
the  larger  amount  expended  in  keeping  the  animal  alive. 
This  fatal  error  is  the  cause  of  nearly  all  unprofitable  cat- 
tle-feeding. 

Some  of  our  American  feeders  fully  understand  the  im- 
portance of  pushing  their  cattle  in  summer.  That  most 
successful  feeder,  John  D.  Gillette,  of  Illinois,  possessing 
the  most  luxurious  blue-grass  pastures,  still,  all  over  his 


FULL-?-EEDII?-Q   IIT   SUMMER.  285 

pastures,  scockcd  with  grade  Short-horn  year-olds  and  two- 
year-olds,  will  be  found,  all  summer  long,  troughs  filled 
with  corn  in  the  ear,  that  his  steers  may  have  their  fill  of 
the  best  grass  and  all  the  corn  they  desire.  Thus  he  pro- 
duces cattle  that  sell  at  top  prices  in  our  market  and  are 
sought  as  the  most  profitable  cattle  for  exportation  to  Eng- 
land. Some  of  his  neighbors,  seeing  his  good  works,  fol- 
low his  example. 

Corn,  as  a  single  diet,  is  too  carbonaceous  to  produce  a 
proper  nourishment  of  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  induces 
fever,  but  when  mixed  with  good  grass,  is  ^ye\\  balanced 
and  makes  the  most  rapid  growth. 

The  best  English  feeders  have  adopted  the  plan  of  stock- 
ing their  pastures  fully,  and  then  feeding  linseed-cake, 
corn-meal,  etc.,  to  help  out  the  pasture. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  London  Farmers'  Club,  Mr.  Tallant 
said  he  could  afford  to  pay  £12  per  ton  for  linseed-cake,  or 
£7  for  cotton-seed-cake,  and  give  it  on  second-rate  pasture. 
It  resulted  in  great  advantage  to  the  cattle,  and  to  the  pas- 
ture itself.  He  had  tested  this  for  some  years  upon  light 
land  pasture,  and  it  was  now  able  to  carry  double  the  ani- 
mals that  it  could  five  years  ago.  This  had  been  effected 
by  the  use  of  oil-cake,  to  give  the  animals  full-feed  on 
second-rate  pasture.  He  was  able  by  this  process  to  turn 
out  steers  .that  sell  for  £30  to  £35  each,  at  24  to  30 
months. 

This  shows  what  might  be  done  to  improve  the  pastures 
in  our  Eastern  States,  the  improvement  all  being  paid  for 
by  the  beef  grown.  Here  the  cost  of  the  extra  food  on 
pasture  is  not  more  than  one-half  the  cost  mentioned  by 
Mr.  Tallant. 

We  do  not  advise  that  gvain  be  fed  upon  all  pastures,  for 
the  best  pasture-grass  can  scarcely  be  improved  upon  by 
the  use  of  grain.  Grass  must  be  the  main  reliance  for 
growing  beef  in  summer ;  but  there  are  times  nearly  every 


286  tEEDtNG   AKIMALS. 

season  when  a  little  corn,  oats,  middlinj^s,  or  cake,  will  pay 
a  large  profit  to  feed  in  small  quantity  on  pasture.  We 
have  known  many  cases  where  20  steers  were  kept  in  a  field 
furnishing  full-feed  for  only  15,  and  where  a  profit  would 
have  been  made  by  selling  two  steers  and  buying  grain  to 
feed  the  other  18  ;  the  18  being  worth  considerably  more, 
at  the  end  of  the  season,  than  the  20  kept  on  scant 
pasture. 

Feeders  are  usually  loth  to  feed  grain  on  pasture,  because 
this  is  increasing  the  expense  of  keep,  and  they  are  apt  to 
infer  increasing  the  cost  of  production.  But  the  latter  is 
an  error.  The  grain  increases  the  cost  of  keep,  but,  when 
properly  given,  cheapens  the  cost  of  the  increase  in  weight. 
The  grain  may  be  so  given  as  to  be  wholly  the  food  of  pro- 
duction, and  it  is  only  the  food  of  production  which  pays. 
If  the  pasture  (as  is  often  the  case)  is  only  sufficient  to  keep 
cattle  without  growth,  then  the  grain  gives  all  the  growth, 
and  Avithout  the  grain  the  pasture  is  thrown  away,  as  the 
animals,  not  having  gained  anything  in  weight,  are  worth 
no  more,  if  as  much,  as  before  they  consumed  the  pasture. 
But  farmers  usually  hold  the  opinion  that  grain  is  dearer 
in  proportion  to  nutriment  than  grass  or  hay,  but  this  is 
iilso  an  error.  Most  intelligent  farmers,  when  short  of  hay 
to  winter  a  stock,  find  it  cheaper  to  purchase  grain  than 
lijiy — feeding  less  hay  and  more  grain.  Of  course  a  pecu- 
liar state  of  the  market  might  reverse  this,  but  as  a  genoral 
fact  grain  is  quite  as  cheap  as  hay,  and  the  farmer  should 
never  hesitate  to  feed  a  small  amount  of  grain  on  pasture 
when  the  grass  is  insufficient,  for  it  may  be  laid  down  as 
a  rule,  that  scanty  feeding,  to  a  healthy  beef-producing 
animal,  is  wasteful  feeding  at  all  times. 

The  soiling  system,  which  has  grown  into  favor  with  a 
considerable  class,  as  an  economical  mode  of  summering 
stock,  is  treated  at  length  in  another  chapter,  and  this 
system  will  be  found  a  substitute  for  grain-feeding  on 
pasture. 


cattle-feedlkg  iist  cold  weather.  287 

Winter-Feeding. 

And  first,  let  us  consider  the  true  method  of  feedmg  the 
home-raised  stock — those  young  animals  reared  in  an 
atmosphere  of  kindness,  that  can  be  placed  in  stall,  stan- 
chion, shed  or  yard,  without  feeling  the  confinement  irk- 
some and  becoming  restive  and  nervous.  The  habits  of 
animals  must  be  respected  by  tlie  skillful  feeder,  or  his 
skill  will  not  lead  to  profit.  It  is  the  indiscriminate  con- 
finement of  cattle  in  stable  that  have  been  reared  in  the 
open  field,  which  has  furnished  the  facts  for  the  unfavor- 
able reports  of  comfortable  stall-feeding  as  compared  to 
open-air  feeding  in  some  of  our  Western  States.  Cattle 
that  have  been  raised  in  the  open  field  without  handling, 
until  two  or  more  years  old,  had  better  be  finished  in  the 
same  state  of  freedom,  only  giving  such  shelter  as  may  be 
enjoyed  without  confinement.  But  those  animals  that 
have  been  fed  as  calves  in  warm  stables,  have  become 
familiar  with  their  attendants,  and  take  kindly  to  their 
comfortable  quarters — these  animals  may  be  fed  much 
cheaper  and  grow  much  faster  by  continuing  them  in  this 
comfortable  atmosphere.  The  feeder  should  always  bear 
this  in  mind — that  the  animal  is  kept  warm  by  the  food  it 
consumes ;  its  animal  heat  always  represents  food,  and  the 
amount  of  this  food  is  always  in  proportion  to  the  temper- 
ature of  the  air  surrounding  the  animal.  A  question  of 
economy  arises  here :  Is  it  cheaper  to  overcome  the  cold 
with  food — that  is,  by  consuming  an  extra  amount  of  food 
in  the  blood  of  the  animal — or  to  keep  out  the  cold  by  arti- 
ficial means  ?  A  warm  stable,  say  that  can  be  kept  at  a 
temperature  of  50  degrees,  will  save  a  large  amount  of  food 
during  the  cold  season.  Let  us  suppose  that  the  out-door 
temperature  in  a  large  part  of  the  cattle-feeding  districts 
will  average,  for  six  months  in  the  year,  25  deg.  (F.),  which 
would  make  a  difference  of  25  degrees  in  favor  of  a  warm 
stable,  this  25  degrees  of  temperature  represents  more  food 


288  PEEDIKG  ANTMALS. 

than  most  farmers  suppose.  If  20  steers,  all  brought  up 
alike  in  comfortable  stables,  are  separated  the  third  winter, 
and  10  are  fed  in  a  stable  of  50  degrees  of  temperature,  and 
the  other  10  are  fed  in  the  open  air,  it  will  take  five  tons  of 
hay,  extra,  to  keep  those  in  the  open  air  in  as  good  condi- 
tion as  those  in  stable;  this  half-ton  per  steer  represents 
the  loss  of  food  from  25  degrees  of  colder  temperature. 
But  if  these  steers  have  been  brought  up  wild  in  tbe  open 
air  for  two  years,  and  the  third  winter  10  are  tied  up  in  a 
warm  stable  and  the  other  10  left  out  as  usual,  the  latter 
will  be  likely  to  do  better,  even  with  this  exposure,  than 
the  former  in  their  comfortable  quarters,  chafing  and  under 
nervous  excitement  from  the  unusual  confinement.  Still, 
let  it  be  remembered  that  tlie  10  accustomed  to  being  con- 
fined in  the  warm  stable  will  consume  at  least  one-half  ton 
per  head  less  food  in  maintaining  the  same  condition  than 
the  10  wild  steers  in  the  open  air.  This  is  the  result  of 
the  laws  governing  animal  life,  which  no  training  nor  cir- 
cumstances can  set  aside.  But  a  lot  of  wild  Texan  steers 
Avould  be  likely  to  lose  more  from  the  worry  of  confinement 
than  from  the  extra  cold  in  the  open  air,  with  freedom. 

These  principles  need  to  be  well  understood,  for  they 
have  been  the  cause  of  no  little  misunderstanding  of  ex- 
periments reported.  And  this  will  also  show  the  great 
economy  of  rearing  our  stock  in  such  habits  as  will  enable 
us  to  keejo  them  in  a  temperature  as  little  below  that  of 
summer  heat  as  possible.  We  may  then  put  on  a  hundred 
pounds  live- weight  with  the  least  amount  of  food. 

Out-door  Feeding. 

But  these  Chicago  exhibitions  of  fat-stock  have  brought 
most  prominently  before  the  public  the  Western  practice  of 
out-door  feeding,  even  for  the  best  cattle;  and  although  the 
fine  animals  there  shown  may  very  reasonably  be  considered 
as  an  argument  and  an  encouragement  to  those  feeders  who 


OUT-DOOR  FEEDING.  289 

have  no  shelter,  to  continue  this  open-air  system,  seeing  that 
it  has  here  produced  animals  of  which  any  feeder  might  be 
proud  ;  and  although  it  shows  so  clearly  that  no  excellence 
can  be  reached  without  full-feeding,  and  tliat,  with  it,  fine 
animals  may  be  raised  under  the  worst  conditions  of  climate 
and  exposure — thus  fixing  a  most  important  principle  in  the 
philosophy  of  stock-growing — yet.  if  taken  as  a  proof  that 
out-door  feeding  is  the  best  and  most  economical  system  in 
"winter,  it  will  disseminate  a  mischievous  error,  and  one  that 
ought  to  be  thoroughly  discussed  and  understood  on  the 
basis  of  first  principles.  It  is  not  likely  that  Mr.  Gillette 
himself,  who  has  exhibited  the  most  successful  grade 
Short-horns,  would  insist  that  those  steers  had  consumed 
no  more  food  than  they  would  have  done  had  the}^  been 
accustomed  to  and  kept  in  comfortable  quarters  during  the 
cold  season.  He  probably  does  not  believe  that  the  same 
amount  of  food  will  keep  a  steer  warm  in  a  temperature  of 
20  degrees  below  zero  as  at  50  degrees  above  zero.  He  is 
well  aware  that  this  70  degrees  lower  temperature  must  be 
overcome  by  the  heat  produced  from  the  food  eaten.  It  is 
not  then  economy  of  food  that  leads  him  to  feed  in  the 
open  air;  but  he  will  probably  say  that,  in  his  situation,  it 
costs  less  to  bestow  this  extra  food  than  the  expense  of 
buildings  to  house  them,  and  the  extra  labor  required  to 
feed  in  barn  from  calf-hood.  It  w411  be  noted,  in  the 
accounts  given,  that  some  of  these  steers  were  so  wild  that 
they  could  not  be  measured — and,  being  thus  reared,  they 
would  not  do  well  in  confinement  as  we  have  mentioned 
in  a  previous  paragraph. 

This  question  must  be  discussed  from  the  standpoint  of 
scientific  facts,  not  of  opinions.  Mr.  Gillette  has  been  so 
successful  in  showing  farmers  how  they  may  grow  fine  ani- 
mals under  all  the  ordinary  disadvantages  that  surround 
them,  without  shelter,  and  with  only  the  canopy  of  heaven 
over  them,  he  is  admirably  situated,  in  the  extent  of  his 
13 


290  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

cattle-feeding,  to  give  a  large  illustration  of  the  compara- 
tive advantages  of  the  two  systems  of  out-door  and  in-door 
winter-feeding.  As  he  mostly  raises  his  own  steers,  he 
might  rear  100  head  to  be  fed  in  stable  or  under  comfort- 
able shelter,  accustoming  them  to  it,  so  that  they  would 
take  to  it  kindly,  housing  them  at  the  first  cold  storms  in 
the  fall,  and  continuing  their  winter-feeding  in  comfort- 
able quarters  till  ripened  for  market.  These  should  be  con- 
trasted with  100  head,  of  the  same  age  and  quality,  fed  in 
the  open  air,  according  to  his  present  plan;  both  lots  of 
steers  to  be  fed  upon  the  same  quality  of  food,  and  accord- 
ing to  his  excellent  custom,  full-fed,  keeping  a  strict 
account  of  the  amount  of  grain  and  winter  fodder  eaten 
by  each  lot.  The  record  of  these  lots  of  steers,  compared 
at  thirty  months  or  three  years,  with  the  half-yearly  and 
final  weights,  would  be  most  instructive,  and  entitle  Mr. 
Gillette  to  the  grateful  thanks  of  the  farmers  of  America. 
We  trust  that  Mr.  Gillette  will  consider  this,  and  consent 
to  undertake  the  settlement  of  this  important  question  in 
this  demonstrative  way.  His  facilities  are  more  ample  than 
those  of  any  experimental  farm  attached  to  our  agricultural 
colleges;  and  as  he  makes  it  his  principal  business  to  feed 
steers  for  market,  his  methods  would  be  likely  to  be  more 
accurate — and  tested  on  such  large  numbers  as  scarcely  to 
admit  of  any  important  error. 

Mr.  Gillette  can  also  do  a  great  service,  even  in  his  pres- 
ent mode  of  feeding,  by  Aveighing  his  steers  at  the  com- 
mencement of  summer-feeding,  and  at  the  beginning  of 
winter-feeding,  noting  the  gain  during  each  of  these  peri- 
ods, as  well  as  the  extra  or  grain  food  given,  per  head. 
The  question  of  the  effect  of  temperature  may  be  solved 
quite  eff'ectually  in  this  way.  No  observing  feeder  doubts 
that  it  requires  a  large  portion  of  the  food  to  keep  up 
animal  heat  during  the  cold  season,  but  precisely  what 
percentage  is  required  has  not  been  accurately  settled  on  a 


OUT-DOOR   FEEDING.  291 

sufficiently  large  scale.  It  would  not  involve  very  much 
labor  to  note  these  facts  in  Mr.  G.'s  feeding,  and,  when 
accurately  noted,  would  become  important  scientific  data. 
These  fat-stock  shows  have  been  most  pertinent  illus- 
trations of  the  principles  we  have  discussed.  They  demon- 
strated most  completely  that  profitable  feeding  must  not 
extend  beyond  three  years,  and  that  the  greatest  profit  will 
find  a  limit  at  20  to  24  months.  This  simple  lesson,  taught 
in  such  a  practical,  eye-opening  way,  was  alone  suflBcient 
doubly  to  compensate  for  all  the  expense  of  the  show. 
The  tenacity  with  which  old  opinions  and  traditional  prac- 
tices are  held  and  followed  by  the '  mass  of  farmers,  is 
prov-erbial.  They  have  seen  their  fathers,  and  heard  of 
grandfathers  and  great-grandfathers,  feeding  steers  till  four 
and  five  years  old  for  beef,  and  they  look  Avith  suspicion 
upon  any  shorter  cut  to  market.  And  with  this  four-year 
system  has  grown  up  the  starving  or  half-feeding  period, 
which  still  further  reduces  the  profit;  for,  when  making 
no  progress,  beef  animals  pay  nothing  for  the  food  they 
eat.  If  the  four  to  fivcryear  system  were  one  of  constant, 
liberal  feeding,  producing  an  average  of  2,000  to  2,400 
pounds'  weight,  and  this  the  best  quality  of  meat,  the  loss 
would  be  comparatively  small  to  that  of  the  periodically 
suspended  growth  system,  which  produces  a  weight  of  only 
1,300  to  1,GOO  lbs.  in  the  same  time — the  one  might  excite 
the  pride  of  the  feeder,  if  it  brought  no  profits,  but  the 
other  would  bring  both  mortification  and  loss.  These  con- 
tests for  prizes  in  the  fat-stock  show  ring  will  constantly 
point  the  feeder  to  the  true  economical  system  of  growing 
beef;  and  these  exhibitions  will  be  such  an  unanswerable 
demonstration  of  the  right  way,  that  the  old  system  will 
soon  have  no  place,  except  in  history.  The  farmer  cannot 
see  the  force  of  an  argument  for  a  change,  unless  backed 
by  numerous  examples. 


292  feeding  animals. 

German  Feeding  Standard — Cattle  Rations. 

We  gave  tables  of  analyses  and  the  feeding  value  of  tlie 
larger  share  of  foods  used  for  cattle  and  other  farm  ani- 
mals, on  pages  153-158.  To  know  the  best  combinations  of 
foods  for  growing  and  fattening  cattle  is  the  first  requisite 
of  successful  feeding,  and  we  shall  extend  this  discussion  to 
the  mention  of  the  most  important  points.  The  German 
experiment  stations  have  experimented  with  cattle  of  vari- 
ous ages  and  under  various  conditions,  and  have  given 
formulas  for  average 'feeding  standards,  in  which  they  state 
the  quantities  and  proportions  of  the  digestible  food  ele- 
ments required  for  cattle  at  different  ages,  and  fed  for  dif- 
ferent purposes.  We  are  indebted  to  Prof.  S.  W.  Johnson's 
report  of  the  Connecticut  experiment  station  for  the  tables 
translated  from  the  German  of  Dr.  Woltf.  We  believe 
Prof.  Johnson  was  the  first  to  bring  these  experiments  defi- 
nitely before  American  cattle-feeders.  We  do  not,  however, 
think  these  feeding  standards  can  be  regarded  as  anything 
more  than  approximative — only  as  showing  what  has  been 
found  to  work  well  in  practice  on  a  small  scale,  and  as 
exhibiting  the  practical  principles  on  which  rations  may  be 
compounded.  These  feeding  standards,  used  in  connection 
with  our  extensive  tables  of  analyses  of  different  foods,  will 
enable  any  one  to  make  up  feeding  rations  for  himself. 
But  we  would  caution  the  reader  against  supposing  these 
to  show  the  only  practical  standard  of  the  proportion  of 
elements  in  rations.  AVe  shall  see  that  great  variations  are 
made  from  this  standard  in  large  and  successful  feeding 
operations. 


CATTLE   RATIONS. 

Feeding  Standards. 
Per  Day,  and  Per  1,000  Pounds,  Live  Weight. 


293 


1. 

5-2 

1 

NUTRITITE 

Digestible 
Substances. 

c 

1 

,2 

3 

X 

1 

c 
"S 
o 

Anuialb. 

m 

O 

B 
B 

3 
< 

1" 

6 
-.3 

> 

"3 

1.    Oxen  at  rest  in  stall               

lbs. 

17.5 
24.0 
26.0 
27.0 
26.0 
25.0 
^.0 

22.0 
23.4 
24.0 
24.0 
24.0 

lbs.      lbs. 

0.7  1     8.0 

1.6  11.3 

2.4  13.2 

2.5  1  15.0 
3.0      14.8 

2.7  14.8 
2  5      12.5 

lbs. 

0.15 
0.30 
0.50 
0.50 
0.70 
0.60 
0.40 

2.0 
1.0 
0.6 
0.4 
0.3 

lbs. 

8.85 
13.20 
16  10 
18.00 
18.50 
18.10 
15.40 

19.8 
17.7 
16.6 
15.4 
13.9 

lbs. 
1  :  12 

2.  Oxen  moderately  worked 

3.  Oxen  heavily  worked 

1  :7.5 
1  :6.0 
1  :  6.5 

Oxen  fattenins,  2d  period 

Oxen  fattening,  3d  period 

5.    Cows  in  milk    

1:5  5 

I  :6.0 

II  5.4 

6.     (Trowing  Cattle: 

.■\(;e.                 Average  Live  Weight 
MoxthH.                        Per  Head. 

2  to    3                          150  pounds 

3  to    6                         300  pounds 

6  to  12                         500  pounds 

12  to  18                          700  pounds 

18toi^i                         850  pounds 

4  0 
3.2 
2.5 
2  0 
1.6 

13.8 
13.5 
13.5 
13.0 
12.0 

1:4.7 
1  :5.0 
1  :6.0 
1  :7.0 
1:8.0 

Per  Day  and  Per  Head. 


Age. 
Months. 

2  to    3 

3  to    6 
6  to  12 

12  to  18 
18  to  24 


Growing  Cattle  : 

Average  Live  Weight 
Per  Head. 

150  pounds 

300  pounds 

500  pounds 

700  pounds 

850  pounds 


3.3 

0.6 

2.1 

0.30 

3.00 

7.0 

1.0 

4.1 

0.30 

5.40 

12.0 

1.3 

6,8 

0.30 

8.40 

16.8 

1.4 

9.1 

0.28 

10.78 

20.4 

1.4 

19.3 

0.26 

11.96 

1  :4.7 
1  :5.0 
1  :6.0 
1  :7.0 
1  :8.U 


Dr.  Wolff  gives  an  illustration  of  the  standard  for  a 
milch  COW,  by  saying  that  30  lbs.  of  young  clover-hay  will 
keep  a  cow  in  good  milk;  and  that  this  contains  of  d-ry 
organic  substance  23  lbs.,  of  which  is  digestible — albumi- 
noids 3.21,  carbo-hydrates  11.28,  and  fat  0.63.  This  is  .71 
lbs.  allDiiminoids  more,  and  .22  lbs.  of  carbo-hydrates  less, 
with  .13  lbs.  of  fat  more,  than  the  standard.  Then  he 
takes  the  richest  and  best  meadow-hay,  of  which  30  lbs. 
contains  of  organic  substance  23.2  lbs.,  having  digestible — 


294 


FEEDING    ANIMALS. 


albuminoids  2.4-9  lbs.,  carbo-hydrates  12.75  lbs.,  and  fat  A2 
lbs.  This  is  almost  exactly  the  feeding  standard.  But  to 
show  how  a  ration  for  milk  cows  may  be  compounded 
of  poorer  hay,  oat-straw,  roots,  and  grain,  he  gives  the 
following : 

Ration  for  Mllch  Cows. 


Rations. 


12  pounds  average  meadow  hay 
6  pounds  oat  straw 

20  pounds  mangolds 

25  pounds  brewers'  grain 

2  pounds  cotton-seed  cake  . .. . 

Standard  


3 
O   to 


lbs. 
9.5 
4.9 
2.2 
5.6 
1.6 


24.0 


Digestible. 


lbs. 
0.65 
0.08 
0  22 
0.98 
0.62 


2.55 
2.50 


lbs. 
4.92 
2.40 
2  00 
2.70 
0.36 


12.38 
12.50 


lbs. 
0.12 
0.04 
0.02 
O.X^O 

JO.24 

0.62 
0.40 


Prof.  S.  W.  Johnson  gives  the  following  rations,  calcu- 
lated from  the  table  : 


20  pounds  cured  corn-fodder 

5  pounds  rye  straw 

6  pounds  malt  sprouts 

2  pounds  cotton-seed  meal  . 

Standard 


13.7 
4.1 
5.0 
1.6 

0.64 
0.04 
1.16 
0.62 

8.68 
1.82 
2.70 
0.36 

24.4 
24.0 

2.46 
2.50 

13  56 
12.20 

0.20 
0.02 
0.10 
0.24 


0.56 
0.40 


Or,  again: 


15  pounds  corn-fodder  . . . . , 

5  pounds  bran 

5  pounds  malt  sprouts 

3  pounds  corn-meal 

2  pounds  cotton-seed  meal 


12.1 

0.16 

5.55 

4.1 

0  59 

2.21 

4.1 

0.97 

2.25 

2  5 

0.22 

2  05 

1.6 

0.62 

0.36 

24.4 

2.56 

12.42 

0.01 
0.15 
0.08 
0  07 
0  24 

0.58 


CATTLE   RATIONS. 


295 


A  practical  ration  we  have  used  to  feed  40  steers,  weigh- 
ing an  average  of  900  lbs.,  and  gaining  2H  lbs.  per  head, 
per  day,  is  the  following : 


RA.TIONB. 


12  pounds  oat-straw 

5  pounds  hay 

6  pounds  corn-meal  . . . 

4  pounds  bran  

2  pounds  linseed-meal. 


Standard  tor  fattening  cattle  of  this  weight 


lbs. 
9.80 
3.98 
5.04 
3.22 
1.61 


23.65 
24.30 


Digestible. 


lbs. 
0.17 
0.27 
0.50 
0.50 
0.47 


1.91 
2.25 


lbs. 
4.81 
2.05 
3.64 
1.70 
0.70 


12.90 
13.50 


0.08 
0.05 
0.28 
0.10 
0.18 

0.69 
0.45 


It  will  be  seen  that  this  practical  ration  corresponds 
quite  closely  with  the  German  standard,  only  the  albumi- 
noids are  slightly  less,  and  the  fat  more.  One  gallon  of 
cheap  molasses  was  added  to  the  ration  of  hay  for  40  head, 
which  would  nearly  bring  up  the  carbo-hydrates  to  the 
standard. 

The  following  is  a  practical  ration  which  we  fed  to  10 
steers  for  90  days ;  their  average  weight  for  the  90  days 
being  1,348  lbs.;  and  this  was  the  average  ration  fed — the 
average  gain  being  3  lbs.  per  head,  per  day : 


15  pounds  oat-straw. 

6  pounds  hay 

7  pounds  corn-meal 
3  pounds  pea-meal  . 
3  pounds  oat-meal.. 
1  pound  flax-seed  . . 


standard  for  fattening  cattle  of  this  weight,  3d 
period 


12.25 

0.21 

6.01 

4.77 

0.32 

2.46 

5.86 

0.59 

4.24 

2.48 

0.51 

1.32 

2.48 

0.29 

1.29 

0.86 

0.17 

0.18 

28.70 

2.09 

15.50 

33.70 

3.63 

19.95 

0.10 
0.06 
0.33 
0.05 
0  14 
0.29 


0.97 
0.80 


This  appears  to  be  a  pretty  wide  departure  from  the 
German  standard  for  fattening  cattle  in  the  3d  period;  but 


296  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

as  this  experiment  was  carried  out  under  our  own  personal 

supervision,  and  as  great  care  was  taken  to  have  weights  as 
exact  as  could  have  been  taken  in  the  establishment  of  the 
standard,  we  must  conclude  that  the  quality  of  the  food  or 
its  condition  will  vary  the  ration  and  its  effect.  That  all 
the  conditions  may  be  understood,  it  should  be  stated  that 
the  corn,  peas,  oats  and  flax-seed  in  the  proportions  stated, 
were  mixed  and  ground  together,  and  then  14  lbs.  of  the 
mixed  meal  was  mixed  with  the  15  lbs.  of  oat-straw,  cut 
into  inch  lengths,  and  all  well  cooked  together — that  is, 
420  lbs.  of  the  ground  meal  was  mixed  with  450  lbs.  of  cut 
oat-straw,  placed  in  a  steam-box  and  well  cooked  with 
steam,  and  this  served  for  three  days'  rarions  for  the  10 
head,  except  that  G  lbs.  of  long  hay  was  given  to  each  at 
noon.  Perhaps  the  explanation  is,  that  the  cooking  ren- 
dered a  so  much  larger  percentage  digestible,  that  it  was, 
in  effect,  equal  to  the  German  standard.  These  steers 
weighed  1,210  lbs.  when  the  experiment  began,  and  1,485 
lbs.  at  the  end  of  90  days;  so  that  1,348  lbs.  was  the  aver- 
age Aveight  during  this  period.  The  meal  ration  was  but 
10  lbs.  during  the  first  two  weeks,  and  increased  gradually 
up  to  16  lbs.,  at  the  end  of  60  days;  making  the  average 
ration  14  lbs.  per  day. 

We  have  always  thought  the  English  feeders  inclined  to 
feed  oil-cakes  too  liberally;  that  they  feed  albuminoids  to 
excess ;  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  Germans  err  in  the 
same  way.  If  we  examine  the  ration  for  the  '^baby 
bullock,"  on  page  250,  we  shall  find  the  albuminoids  very 
large  for  so  young  an  animal,  during  the  last  sixteen  weeks, 
when  its  average  weight  was  under  1,000  lbs.  The  8  lbs. 
of  cake  and  meal  contained  1.89  lbs.  albuminoids,  the  man- 
golds .33  lbs.,  and  the  grass,  clover,  etc.,  must  have  con- 
tained 1  lb. — making  3.19  lbs.  albuminoids  ;  whilst  in  the 
case  we  gave,  on  page  252,  the  3  lbs.  cake,  5  lbs.  corn- 
meal  and  grass,  would  not  exceed  2.13  lbs.  of  albuminoid 
substance. 


CATTLE   RATIONS. 


297 


Clover  and  Corn. 

American  feeders  must  learn  to  make  the  best  use  of 
what  they  can  produce  easily  on  their  own  farms.  Clover, 
with  proper  management,  is  an  easily-produced  and  abun- 
dant crop  ;  it  is  also  the  richest  of  our  artificial  grasses  in 
albuminoids.  When  fed  in  its  succulent  state,  or  cured  at 
or  before  blossom,  its  albuminoids  are  more  soluble  and 
digestible,  and  answer  as  a  substitute  for  oil-cake  or  other 
nitrogenous  grain  food ;  and  Indian  corn,  our  most  abun- 
dant grain  food,  will  furnish  the  needed  oil  and  easily- 
digested  carbo-liydrates.  Let  us  give  from  the  tables  a 
ration  combined  of  these  two  easily-obtained  foods: 

Clover  and  Com  Ration  for  Fattening  Cattle  of  1,200  Pounds. 


CO 

a 

O 

Digestible. 

Rations. 

on 

3. 
"o 
.S 

's 

3 

a 

< 

I 
>> 

6 

6 

^ 

20  pounds  best  clover-hay . 

lbs. 
15.20 

4.10 
11.77 

lbs. 
2.14 
0  04 
1.17 

lbs. 

7.52 
1.82 
8.48 

lbs. 
0.42 
0  02 

14  pounds  corn-meal 

0.50 

Standard  for  fattening  caHle  of  1,200  pound 
period 

s,  2d 

... 

31.07 
31.20 

3.35 
3.00 

17.82 
17.70 

0.96 
O.M 

Or  Peas  and  Oats, 

dried  in 

Blosso7n,  wit 

h  Co^^-meal. 

27  pounds  pea  and  oat  hay  ..          

20.60 
10  09 

2.16 
1.00 

9.61 
7  27 

0  48 

12  pounds  corn-meal                              

0  57 

30. G9 

3.16 

17.88 

1.05 

Winter  Ration  of 

Western  Cattle— Corn 

and  Stalks. 

20  pounds  dry  corn-stalks 

20  pounds  ear-corn 

16.32 

16.82 

0.16 
1.68 

7.30 
12.12 

0.08 
0.96 

33.14 

1.84 

19.42 

1.04 

298  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

We  have  given  this  latter  ration  to  show  how  far  it 
comes  short  of  the  German  standard  for  fattening  cattle. 
It  is  given  as  if  the  whole  corn  were  as  digestible  as  meal; 
and  even  then,  it  only  shows  about  half  of  the  albumin- 
oids of  the  standard.  The  20  lbs.  of  corn  can  hardly  be 
estimated  as  affording  more  digestible  nutriment  to  cattle 
than  12  lbs.  of  meal,  as  much  of  it  passes  the  cattle  whole ; 
and  if  we  estimate  the  real  digestibility  as  only  equal  to  12 
lbs.  of  corn-meal,  then  the  albuminoids  will  only  amount 
to  1.16  lbs.,  instead  of  2. TO  lbs.  It  is  very  evident  that 
any  ration,  composed  of  corn  in  the  shock  or  corn  sta-nding 
on  the  hill,  must  be  much  below  the  German  standard  in 
albuminoids.  And  when  we  consider  the  fact,  that  mill- 
ions of  cattle  are  thus  fed  every  year  in  the  West,  and  that 
these  cattle  are  among  the  best  in  the  market,  we  must 
conclude  that  the  German  standard  is  only  approximate, 
and  determined  from  too  small  a  range  of  experiments  to 
be  implicitly  relied  upon.  In  fact,  until  the  full  statement 
of  the  German  experiments  is  published  in  this  country, 
we  cannot  judge  of  the  evidence  to  sustain  their  feeding 
standards. 

There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  this  standard 
corresponds  pretty  closely  with  the  practice  of  the  best 
English  feeders,  and  with  American  feeders  in  the  Middle 
and  Eastern  States,  where  oats,  oil-cake,  bran,  peas  and 
clover  are  fed  to  some  extent  with  Indian  corn.  But  it 
requires  careful  experiments,  on  a  large  scale,  carried  on 
for  years,  to  settle  practically  the  permissible  limits  of  the 
feeding  standard  for  animals  of  different  ages  intended  for 
meat.  And  this  is  just  the  work  to  be  undertaken  and 
carefully  worked  out  by  our  agricultural  colleges  on  their 
experimental  farms.  Here  should  be  all  the  facilities  for 
the  most  accurate  determination  of  these  questions;  and, 
as  its  determination  is  of  the  greatest  practical  importance 
in  the  profitable  feeding  of  all   our  farm  animals,  there 


WASTE-PRODUCT   RATIONS. 


200 


should  be  no  further  delay  in  instituting  these  experi- 
ments. They  would  reach  a  broader  interest  in  agriculture 
than  any  other  single  set  of  experiments  could.  They 
would  necessarily  take  in  the  comparative  aptitude  of  the 
different  breeds  for  laying  on  flesh  and  fat,  secreting  milk, 
and  growing  wool;  or,  in  other  words,  would  determine 
the  most  economical  meat,  milk  and  wool-producing  breeds 
under  precisely  the  same  circumstances. 

Waste-Products  in   Cattle-Rations. 

As  we  have  given  a  long  list  of  refuse  products  in  the 
tables,  let  us  give  special  applications  of  some  of  the  most 
easily  obtained  of  these  in  fattening  cattle.  We  will  sup- 
pose the  feeder  to  be  within  easy  reach  of  large  quantities 
of  corn-sugar  meal,  and  that  it  contains  28  lbs.  of  dry  mat- 
ter to  the  hundred  pounds,  as  found  at  the  manufactory, 
and  its  cost  is  25  cents  jier  barrel,  or  123^  cents  per  100  lbs. 
It  would  not  be  profitable  to  handle  it  at  a  higher  price, 
where  the  distance  of  carriage  is  more  than  five  miles,  and 
it  may  often  be  obtained  at  20  per  cent.  less.  A  great 
variety  of  combinations  may  be  given,  among  which  take 
the  following : 

Ratioxs  for  Fattening  Cattle. 
Per  1,000  Lbs.  Weight. 


' 

1 

J 
1 

o 

Digestible. 

Rations. 

1 

S 

s 
.a 

< 

1 

1 

1 

^ 

o 

18  pounds  of  winter- wheat  straw 

lbs. 

14.6 
11.2 
3.6 

lbs. 

0  14 
1.28 
l.;i2 

7.72 
3.68 

lbs. 

0.07 
0.72 
0.64 

lets. 

40  pounds  corn-sugar  meal 

4  pounds  cotton-seed  meal 

0.05 
0.05 

29.4 

2.74 

17.59 

1.43 

0.10 

300 

Or  this 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


RATIONe 


13  pounds  clover-hay ...... 

6  pounds  oat-strHW , 

40  pounds  corn-sugar  meal 

2  pounds  linseed-meal... 

Standard  German  ration . . . 

Or  this  : 

12  pounds  oat-straw . . 

10  pounds  wheat-bran 

40  pounds  corn-sugar  meal 


10.2 
4.9 

11.2 
1.6 


27.9 
27.0 


Digestible. 


1.02 

0  08 

1  28 
0.47 


2.85 
2.50 


lbs. 

4.59 
2.40 
7  72 
0.70 


15.41 
15.00 


lbs. 

0.20 
0.04 
0.72 
0.18 


1.14 
0.50 


8.20 
11.20 


29.20 


0.17 
1.18 
1.28 


4.81 
4.42 


16.95 


0.08 
0.30 
0.72 


1.10 


Or  this  : 


15  pounds  corn^odder 

5  pounds  malt-sprouts. .. . 
3  pounds  corn-meal 

40  pounds  corn-sugar  meal 


12.7 
4.1 
2.5 

11.2 

0.16 
0.97 
0  22 

1.28 

30.5 

2.63 

5.55 
2.25 
•2  05 


17.57 


0.04 
0.08 
0.07 
0.72 


0.91 


Or  again 


20  pounds  best  clover-hay 

50  pounds  corn-sugar  meal 

15.2 
14.0 

2.14 
1.(50 

7.52 
9.85 

0.42 
0.90 

0.10 
0.06 

29.2 

3.74 

17.37 

1.32 

0.16 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  dry  matter  is  nearly  the  same  in 
all  these  combinations;  but  the  albuminoids  are  consider- 
ably more  in  the  last  ration,  composed  of  clover-hay  and 
sugar-meal.     If  we   substitute   straw   or   corn-fodder  for 


WASTE-PRODUCT   RATIONS.  301 

clover-hay,  then  we  must  add  some  very  nitrogenous  food 
to  make  up  that  element.  Straw  might  substitute  one-half 
of  the  clover-hay.  But  if  we  take  ration  No.  4  and  omit 
3  lbs.  of  corn-meal  and  make  the  corn-sugar  meal  50  lbs.,  it 
will  be  a  well-balanced  ration  and  cost  one  cent  less. 

It  is  evident  that  the  feeder  can  make  a  profitable  use  of 
this  refuse  when  he  can  get  it  at  about  the  price  men- 
tioned, or  lower;  but  if  he  attempts  to  feed  this  sugar- 
meal  with  only  straw,  or  some  food  poor  in  albuminoids, 
he  will  not  succeed  in  the  end.  A  little  dry,  ground  fish 
scrap — say  2  lbs.  per  day — would  balance  the  ration  with 
sugar-meal  and  straw.  The  reader  will  see  that  these  com- 
binations may  be  very  numerous.  Where  oats  are  cheap,  a 
few  quarts  would  balance  this  ration  with  straw  or  corn- 
fodder.  Mult  sprouts  are  often  purchasable  at  40  cents 
per  hundred  pounds,  in  which  case  this  may  be  the  cheap- 
est mixture,  as  in  ration  4.  Marsh  hay  is  very  plenty  in 
many  places,  and  may  be  fed  to  fattening  cattle,  to  good 
advantage,  with  sugar-meal  and  2  lbs.  of  linseed  or  cotton- 
seed meal.  It  is  only  profitable  to  use  the  decorticated 
cotton-seed  cake  or  meal.  This  marsh  hay  is  much  better 
than  straw,  as  it  contains  three  times  the  proportion  of 
albuminoids  contained  in  straw,  and  more  fat. 

It  will  also  be  noticed,  from  tables  given,  that  weeds  can 
be  turned  to  account.  Even  the  white  daisy,  when  cut 
before  blossoming,  is  nutritious  food,  and  the  analysis 
shows  it  to  be  quite  superior  to  the  best  cured  corn-fodder. 
It  is  a  vile  weed  when  suffered  to  ripen ;  but,  if  cut  when 
young  and  tender,  makes  a  good  fodder. 

Linseed  axd  Cotton-seed  Cake. 

These  waste  products,  properly  utilized  in  growing  beef 
and  dairy  products,  represent  a  most  important  element  in 
American  agriculture.  The  extensive  purchase  of  these 
products  by  English  farmers  during  the  last  50  years  has 


302  FEEDIKG   ANIMALS. 

largely  increased  the  productiveness  of  British  soil.  It 
cannot  be  a  matter  of  indifference  to  thoughtful  American 
farmers  that  the  most  important  elements  in  the  great  cot- 
ton crop,  flax  crop  and  hemj)  crop  are  exported.  'I'he  fibre 
of  the  cotton  contains  no  important  element  of  fertility, 
although  this  is  the  principal  value  of  the  crop,  commer- 
cially; and  the  oil  expressed  from  the  seed  contains  only 
carbon  and  water,  which  is  supplied  from  the  atmosphere ; 
but  the  cotton-seed  cake  is  rich  in  mineral  elements 
derived  from  the  soil,  and  in  nitrogen,  regarded  as  an 
essential  element  in  our  commercial  fertilizers.  It  is  the 
same  with  the  flax  crop.  The  fibre  contains  little  of  manu- 
rial  value,  and  the  oil  still  less;  but  the  linseed-cake  is  ex- 
tremely rich  in  all  the  elements  of  fertility;  and  when  this 
is  fed,  and  the  manure  returned  to  the  soil,  comparatively 
little  is  lost  to  the  soil.  It  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  reforms 
needed  in  our  agriculture  to  use  these  oil-cakes  for  home 
feeding,  and  thus  get  a  more  valuable  return  in  beef  for 
export  than  if  the  cakes  were  exported,  besides,  saving  the 
great  amount  of  fertilizing  matter  to  replenish  our  soil. 
Sir  J.  B.  Lawes  estimates  the  manurial  value  of  cotton- 
seed and  linseed-cakes  as  greater  than  the  average  price  for 
which  they  are  sold  in  this  country  for  export — the  former 
at  about  ^29,  and  the  latter  at  $23  per  ton.  This  estimate 
is  made  by  the  most  accurate  experimenter  in  England. 
Does  it  not  appeal  to  the  American  stock-feeder  and 
farmer  to  closely  study  the  value  of  these  oil-cakes  as 
eattle  foods  ?  These  refuse  products  are  estimated,  in  the 
tables  given,  as  worth  from  GO  to  100  per  cent,  more  than 
corn-meal  for  fattening  cattle — they  can  usually  be  pur- 
chased at  the  mills  at  from  $20  to  $25  per  ton — being 
exceedingly  rich  in  albuminoids,  and  containing  from  two 
to  three  times  the  digestible  oil  in  corn-meal.  These 
are  very  concentrated  foods,  and  only  a  small  ration  can 
profitably  be  fed.     We  have  often  expressed  the  opinion 


WASTE-PRODUCT   RATION'S. 

that  English  cattle-feeders  employ  these  cakes  to  excess,  or 
beyond  the  point  of  profitable  feeding.  Eight  pounds  is  a 
common  ration  with  them  for  a  2K-year  old  steer,  and  for 
older  animals  sometimes  10  to  12  lbs.  per  day.  This  ap- 
pears to  be  a  simple  waste  of  albuminoids  and  oil ;  for  this 
part  of  the  ration  alone  would  give  from  2.70  lbs.  to  3.30 
lbs.  of  albuminoids — when  the  whole  ration,  according  to 
German  experiments,  only  requires  2.50  lbs.,  and  from  0.80 
to  1.60  lbs.  of  oil,  instead  of  50-100  pounds. 

The  true  use  for  these  concentrated  foods  is  as  a  mixture 
with  straw,  poor  hay,  chaff,  corn-fodder  and  roots,  or  other 
food  poor  in  albuminoids.  A  million  of  cattle  are  fattened 
every  year  in  the  West  upon  corn  and  its  stalks.  This 
grain  is  our  best  fattening  food,  but  is  deficient  in  albu- 
minoids, and,  from  its  excess  of  starch,  is  apt  to  create  a 
feverish  condition  of  the  system.  Now  the  use  of  even 
two  pounds  of  oil-cake  or  meal  per  day  will  counteract 
this,  and  keep  the  stomach  and  bowels  in  proper  condition. 
Cattle  that  are  kept  upon  corn  and  dry  corn-stalks  through 
the  winter  are  often  attacked  with  what  is  called  ^'  impac- 
tion of  the  manifolds,"  or  third  stomach.  This  would  sel- 
dom, if  ever,  occur  with  a  moderate  use  of  oil-cake ;  for 
this  would  counteract  the  feverish  tendency,  supply  what 
the  corn  is  deficient  in,  and,  by  its  oil,  keep  up  a  healthy 
condition  of  the  whole  system.  We  have  found  linseed-oil 
cake  to  have  a  similar  effect  upon  cattle  in  winter  as  grass 
in  summer;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  and  decor- 
ticated cotton-seed  cake  are  of  great  value  to  be  fed  with 
other  foods.  That  the  reader  may  see  how  various  are  the 
combinations  that  may  be  made  of  these  cakes  with  other 
foods,  we  will  give  some  examples. 


304 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


Rations  for  Fattening  Cattle. 
Per  1,000  Lbs.  Weight. 


8 

B 

1 

& 

o 

DlQESTIBLK. 

Rations. 

O 

c 

1 

£ 

a 

5 

20  pounds  wheat-straw 

8  pounds  timothy-hay 

6  pounds  cottou-seed  cake 

lbs. 

17.14 
G  80 
5.56 

lbs. 

0.10 
0.40 
l.'.tO 

lbs. 

7.12 
:i.47 
1.05 

lbs. 

0.88 
0.11 
0.97 

lets. 

0.04 
0.06 

29.. 56 
27.00 

2..')5 
2.50 

11.04 
15.00 

1.16 
0.50 

0.10 

Or  this 


20  pounds  corn-fodder  . 
0  pounds  Indian  corn  . 
6  pounds  linseed-cuke 


17.00 
5.13 
5.45 


27.58 


0.22 
0  50 
1.05 


.37 


7.40 
3.03 
1.65 


12.68 


0.08 
0.28 
0  02 


0.96 


0.06 
0.09 


0.15 


It  will  be  observed  that  both  of  these  rations  are  deficient 
in  carbo-hydrates;  but  the  excess  in  fat -will  nearly  make 
up  the  difference,  as  one  pound  of  fat  is  equal  to  two  and  a 
half  pounds  of  carbo-hydrates  in  form  of  starch,  gum,  etc. 
We  will  give  a  few  more  rations,  by  simply  giving  the  pro- 
portions of  the  foods: 


No.  1. 
lbs. 

1  ft  r>*»  f -cf  ■r<:<  Ti' 

Cost, 
cf.s. 

No.  4. 
lbs. 

Cost. 
ct^. 

00 

.     .     03 

fi  fof.tnn -sppH  pfiUp 

3  corn-nieal 

03 

4  linseed-meal 

.    .06 

No.  2. 

No.  5. 
20  fresh  niareh  hay 

......    .01 

5  pea-straw 

5  corn-meal 

5  cotton-seed  meal 

05 

07 

No.  6. 

10  good  meadow  hay 

10  rye-straw 

No.  3. 
20  poor  hav 

05 

05 

02 

5  cotton-seed  cake 

05 

5  linseed-meal  

07 

WASTE-PRODUCT    RATIONS.  305 


Ration  for  Oxen  at  Hard  Work. 


lbs.  No.  7.  lbs.  No.  9. 

25  oat-straw. 
5  wheat-bran. 


20  best  meadow  hay. 
10  corn-meal. 


5^0.  s. 

17  clover-hay. 
3  wheat-bran. 
10  corn-meal. 


4  linseed-cake. 

No.  10. 
20  com-fodder. 

5  clover-hay. 

2  wheat-bran. 

3  cottoji-seed  cake. 


These  rations  are  not  given  to  be  followed  strictly,  but 
only -as  suggestions  of  the  proper  combination  of  food  for 
fattening  cattle  and  for  oxen  at  work.  The  reader  will  see 
what  almost  endless  combinations  may  be  made  from  the 
food-tables  given  at  pages  157-8.  Oxen  at  rest  do  not 
require  so  nitrogenous  a  diet  as  when  at  work,  or  as  grow- 
ing or  fattening  cattle.  The  proper  nutritive  ratio  for  oxen 
at  rest  in  stall  is  1:12;  the  same  heavily  worked,  1:6;  cows 
in  milk,  1:5.5  ;  fattening  oxen,  1st  period,  1:6.5  ;  2d  period, 
1:5.5;  3d  period,  1:6;  young  growing  cattle,  1:4.7;  those 
older,  1:5;  18  months  old,  1:6;  24  months,  1:7. 

We  have  dwelt  longer  upon  this  matter  of  rations  be- 
cause it  is  only  recently  that  farmers  have  recognized  the 
necessity  of  a  change  of  ration  for  all  the  different  condi- 
tions; and  they  have  been  wont  to  consider  a  single  food 
sufficient  for  the  wants  of  cattle.  These  tables,  showing 
how  various  are  the  qualities  of  the  foods  given  to  our  ani- 
mals, and  how  deficient  many  of  them  are  as  a  complete 
ration,  will  give  a  better  idea  of  the  necessity  for  combin- 
ing the  different  foods  together,  that  our  cattle  may  have 
the  proper  elements  to  meet  all  their  wants.  In  our  pas- 
tures all  of  these  wants  are  provided  for  in  the  ten  to  fifty 
species  of  grasses  found  growing  there.  Some  old  pas- 
tures contain  probably  nearer  one  hundred  species  than 
fifty,  and  these  furnish  a  bovine  ration  in  absolute  perfec- 
tion. Young  grass  contains  a  larger  proportion  of  albu- 
minoids than  when  nearer  maturity;  and  it  is  found  that 


306  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

cattle  fatten  faster  upon  grass  2  to  4  inches  high  than  when 
of  ranker  growth.  Each  of  these  numerous  foods  of  w^iicli 
we  have  given  the  analyses  has  some  quality  or  combination 
of  qualities  in  excess  of  all  the  others.  It  is,  therefore, 
certain  that  the  practical  feeder  will  be  much  better  quali- 
fied for  his  task  after  he  has  made  himself  acquainted  with 
these  qualities,  and  learned  to  combine  them  in  the  rations 
for  his  stock.  A  little  study  in  this  direction  will  enable 
the  farmer  to  turn  into  money  everything  grown  upon  his 
farm.  Every  refuse  product  will  then  have  a  definite  value, 
and  swell  the  income  of  the  farm. 

How  TO  Feed  the  Corn  Crop. 

Indian  corn  is  the  great  American  cattle  crop.  Any  im- 
provement in  handling  this  crop  has  a  wide  degree  of  use- 
fulness. A  slight  saving  of  labor  upon  each  bushel  fed 
would  amount  to  millions  of  dollars.  It  is  but  a  few^  years 
since  that  the  general  practice  in  the  West  was  to  let  the 
cattle  harvest  this  crop.  They  fed  through  the  fall  and 
winter  in  the  .field,  eating  the  ears  and  as  much  of  the 
stalks  as  they  desired.  By  this  plan  much  of  the  corn  was 
Avasted;  but  the  saving  of  labor  compensated  for  the  loss. 
The  cost  of  shocking  and  husking  the  corn  was  more  than 
the  value  of  the  corn  wasted.  So  it  went  on  for  many 
years,  and  is  still  continued  by  some  Western  feeders.  In 
the  older  States  the  corn  has  been  shocked  and  husked, 
and,  in  most  cases,  shelled  and  ground  into  meal,  before 
feeding.  Here  is  a  large  amount  of  labor  expended, 
amounting  to  nearly  as  much  in  harvesting  and  feeding  as 
in  raising  the  crop.  If  this  great  crop  can  be  utilized  with 
a  less  expenditure  of  labor,  the  same  result  being  reached, 
it  will  be  so  much  added  to  the  profits  of  cattle-feeding. 
Fed  in  the  ear,  or,  as  it  is  in  the  West,  in  the  field,  the 
greatest  loss  in  grain  occurs  from  want  of  proper  mastica- 
tion.    Cattle  perform  the  principal  mastication  of  their 


HOW  TO  FEED  THE  CORN^  CROP.  307 

food  in  rumination.  When  grain  is  eaten  alone  it  is  not 
raised  and  remasticated  with  the  cud,  but  passes  on  to  the 
third  stomach.  This  is  the  cause  of  so  much  corn  passing 
Western  cattle  without  digestion,  which  is  found  in  a  soft- 
ened state  by  the  hogs  that  follow  the  cattle. 

Now  if  the  cattle  could  eat  the  corn  and  fodder  together, 
the  grain  would  be  so  mixed  with  the  fibrous  mass  of  corn- 
stalks that  all  would  be  raised  and  remasticated  together. 
The  grain  would  thus  be  so  ground  up  as  to  prevent  any 
considerable  portion  from  passing  undigested,  and  the 
whole  would  be  utilized.  The  author,  some  years  ago,  rec- 
ommended a  method  of  feeding  the  whole  crop  of  corn 
together,  by  running  stalks,  ears  and  all  through  a  large 
cutter,  and  reducing  it  all  to  fine  chaff.  By  using  a  power 
cutter,  run  by  steam  or  large  horse-power,  the  whole  may 
be  reduced  to  fine  shavings  with  great  rapidity — two  tons 
per  hour.  This  renders  the  stalks  much  more  digestible, 
because  the  cutter  reduces  the  fibre  to  a  finer  condition 
than  the  animal  will  masticate ;  and  then  when  this  fine 
chaff  is  taken  into  the  rumen  and  softened,  and  then  raised 
with  the  grain  and  remasticated,  it  gets  thoroughly  mashed 
and  fitted  for  the  reception  of  the  manifolds  and  the  final 
action  of  the  fourth  or  true  stomach.  When  cut  into  fine 
shavings,  the  hard  rind  of  the  stalk  is  broken  into  shreds, 
and  is  eaten  without  any  irritation  of  the  mouth.  When 
cut  into  pieces  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches  long,  remain- 
ing there  in  a  solid  chunk  with  sharp  edges,  they  some- 
times irritate  the  mouth.  We  have  recommended,  where 
large  numbers  of  cattle  are  fed,  and  a  steam-engine  is  em- 
ployed for  cutting,  to  run  the  cut  chaff  into  a  steam-box, 
and,  turning  on  the  steam,  soften  it  to  a  pulp.  We  have 
no  hesitation  in  saying  that,  thus  fed,  corn  will  lay  on  as 
many  pounds  to  the  bushel  as  if  it  were  husked,  shelled, 
ground  and  cooked;  for  the  steaming  more  thoroughly  dis- 
integrates the  grain   than  any  possible  grinding  can  do. 


308  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

But  it  is  not  necessary  to  success  in  this  method  of  feed- 
ing the  corn  crop  to  steam  it;  for  cutting,  in  the  manner 
mentioned,  secures  the  remastication  of  every  part,  and 
tlie  cutter  reduces  the  cob  to  so  thin  a  scale  that  it  can  be 
easily  masticated. 

This  system  of  feeding  the  corn  crop  will  enable  the 
farmer  to  shock  the  crop  while  the  stalks  are  still  green ; 
and  thus  the  fodder  will  have  thrice  the  value  of  stalks 
standing  on  the  hill  with  the  life  dried  out  of  them.  As 
soon  as  the  corn  is  sufficiently  matured  as  not  to  spoil 
in  the  shock,  it  should  be  cut  and  bound  in  small 
shocks,  so  as  to  be  easily  handled  when  brought  to 
barn  for  cutting  and  feeding.  If  the  corn  is  cut  by  hand, 
it  would  be  most  convenient  to  bind  in  moderate-sized 
bundles,  and  set  these  in  shocks.  These  bundles  would  be 
run  through  the  cutter  whole,  and  thus  save  time  in  han- 
dling. The  earlier  the  corn  is  cut,  the  more  valuable  will 
be  the  fodder ;  and  corn  does  not  require  to  be  so  far  ad- 
vanced in  ripening  as  farmers  usually  suppose  before  it  can 
be  safely  put  in  shock.  When  the  kernel  is  in  the  dough 
state,  it  may  safely  be  shocked  if  the  weather  is  favor- 
able. We  have  had  corn  ripen  properly  in  shock  when  cut 
in  the  milk,  the  butts  being  placed  on  moist  ground.  This 
is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance;  for  the  fodder, 
when  cut  at  the  proper  time,  has  a  value  nearly  equal  to 
common  hay;  and  after  the  corn  has  stood  to  fully  ripen 
on  the  hill  the  stalks  have  little  value  as  food.  When  cut 
early,  the  stalks  make  sufficient  fodder  to  be  given  to  fat- 
tening cattle  with  the  grain  growing  on  the  same  ground, 
and  the  cost  of  feeding  is,  therefore,  much  reduced. 

Mode  of  Cutting  and  Handling. 

The  straw-cutter  should  be  arranged  with  a  carrier, 
which  will  deliver  the  chaff  and  corn  in  a  feeding-car  upon 
the  feeding-floor  in  the  stable  below.     Over  the  feeding-car 


CUTTING   AN-D   HANDLING   CORN.  309 

should  be  a  pipe,  from  which  water  may  be  drawn  upon  a 
sieve  and  sprinkled  over  the  chatt;  to  moisten  it.  This 
sprinkling  is  done  as  fast  as  the  cut  corn  is  delivered  in  the 
car.  The  water  is  regulated  by  the  quantity  of  corn  deliv- 
ered. Then,  by  allowing  it  to  remain  in  mass  for  12  to  18 
hours,  it  will  become  warmed  up  by  incipient  fermentation, 
somewhat  softened  and  rendered  more  easy  of  digestion. 
This  is  the  best  way  to  handle  it  wlien  not  steamed.  The 
author  has  used  it  with  this  slight  fermentation,  as  well  as 
with  steaming;  and,  although  the  latter  is  preferable 
where  every  convenience  is  had  for  it,  yet  moistening  and 
fermenting  is  a  skillful  way  of  handling  it,  and  will  give 
good  returns.  An  acre  of  corn  will  produce  about  50  per 
cent,  more  beef  in  this  way  than  by  allowing  the  cattle  to 
harvest  it  for  themselves,  even  when  the  weather  is  com- 
fortable, and  100  per  cent,  more  in  the  coldest  weather. 

It  will  be  seen  that  tlie  labor  of  harvesting  and  feeding 
is  no  more,  on  this  plan,  than  of  harvesting  and  feeding  a 
crop  of  fodder  corn.  The  fact  that  it  is  a  large  crop  of 
grain  does  not  add  at  all  to  the  labor.  Most  good  feeders 
in  the  Eastern  States,  as  a  matter  of  economy,  run  the 
fodder  corn  through  a  straw-cutter,  except  when  fed  green. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  corn  crop  is  much  better 
utilized  on  this  plan  than  when  husked  and  shelled  and 
the  corn  fed  whole,  for  it  will  not  then  be  remasticated, 
and  much  of  it  will  pass  the  cattle  without  digestion. 

This  mode  of  feeding  the  corn  crop  can  be  carried  on 
upon  a  large  or  small  scale — the  larger  the  scale,  the  less 
labor  proportionally.  Where  one  hundred  head  of  cattle 
are  fed,  it  will  cost  less  in  proportion  than  for  twenty  head, 
because  the  power  and  the  cutter  will  be  larger,  and  the 
work  done  more  rapidly.  With  an  engine  and  a  large  cut- 
ter, with  a  proper  carrier  and  sprinkler  for  moistening  it, 
one  man  can  prepare  the  ration,  feed  and  care  for  one  hun- 
dred head  of  cattle.     In  tliis  case  the  manual  labor  of  cut- 


310  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

ting  the  corn  into  chaff,  depositing  it  in  the  feeding-car, 
and  moistening  it,  consists  merely  in  feeding  the  corn  into 
the  straw-cutter — the  carrier  delivers  it  in  the  car,  and  the 
water-pipe  moistens  it,  without  any  hand  labor.  It  would 
require  3,000  to  3,500  lbs.  of  shock  corn  per  day,  and  an 
active  man  could,  in  good  weather,  bring  this  in  from  the 
field,  prepare  and  feed  it.  The  feeding-car  would  run  on  a 
track  on  the  feeding-floor,  and  hold  a  day's  feed.  The  cat- 
tle would  stand  on  each  side  of  the  floor,  and,  as  the  car  is 
moved  along,  the  cattle  are  fed  right  and  left.  Where  a 
large  number  of  cattle  are  kept  two  feeding-cars  are  re- 
quired— one  to  feed  from  while  the  other  is  filling  and 
fermenting. 

Improvement  of  the  Corn  Ration. 

We  have  just  seen  how  the  whole  corn  crop  may  be  fed 
together,  saving  stalks  as  well  as  grain,  and  with  much  less 
labor  than  is  usually  bestowed.  But  the  stalks  and  grain, 
taken  together,  are  too  poor  in  albuminoids  to  make  a  com- 
plete ration  alone.  It  is  true  that  great  numbers  of  West- 
ern cattle  are  fattened  every  year  wholly  upon  corn ;  but 
this  ration  is  so  easily  improved  that,  where  the  crop  is 
handled  in  the  manner  described,  this  deficiency  may  be 
supplied  with  two  or  three  pounds  of  linseed-cake  or 
cotton-seed  cake.  This  cake  (or  better  in  form  of  meal) 
may  be  added  to  each  corn  ration  when  fed,  and  with  this 
addition  cattle  would  be  made  to  fatten  most  satisfactorily. 
As  before  explained,  one  of  these  oil-cakes  is  better  than 
oth&r  nitrogenous  foods,  because  of  the  large  percentage  of 
oil,  this  overcoming  the  tendency  to  constipation  from  dry 
fodder  and  the  large  percentage  of  starch  in  corn.  Yet 
four  pounds  of  wheat-bran  will  answer  a  very  good  purpose 
when  cake  cannot  be  had. 


CORK  AKD   BEEP.  311 

Beef  to  the  Acre  of  Corn. 
It  may  be  of  interest  to  examine  the  probable  result  of 
feeding  an  acre  of  corn  in  this  way.  Farmers  would  be 
better  prepared  to  understand  their  business  if  they  were 
in  the  habit  of  determining  the  result  per  acre  of  all  their 
crops.  We  have  a  small  experiment  of  our  ovrn  to  give  as 
to  the  pounds  of  beef  produced  per  acre  of  corn  cut  and 
fed  as  described,  without  steaming,  but  merely  slightly  fer- 
mented, as  mentioned.  We  were  feeding  ten  steers,  of 
1,175  lbs.  average  weight.  The  corn  was  shocked  Septem- 
ber 10th,  and  we  began  feeding  November  1st.  The  corn 
was  estimated  to  yield  40  bushels  per  acre  when  properly 
dried.  It  was  shocked  when  the  ear  was  in  the  soft  dough 
state  and  the  stalks  were  green.  At  first  the  average  ration 
was  40  lbs.  per  head,  per  day,  of  the  corn  in  the  shock, 
which  was  run  through  a  straw-cutter  with  a  3-lG  inch  cut. 
Two  pounds  of  linseed-oil  meal  was  given  to  each  steer  per 
day,  mixed  with  the  corn  ration.  The  corn  was  cut  so  fine 
that,  after  a  slight  fermentation,  it  was  eaten  clean.  Four 
acres  were  accurately  measured,  and  lasted  70  days.  The 
average  weight  of  the  steers  at  the  end  was  1,375  lbs.,  or  a 
gain  of  200  lbs.  each.  The  oil-meal  cost  2  cts.  per  pound, 
and  the  steers  had  gained  in  value  $14  per  head,  or  7  cts. 
per  pound  gain.  Now  if  we  deduct  the  price  of  the  oil- 
meal,  it  takes  40  lbs.,  at  7  cents,  to  jxiy  it.  This  would 
leave  as  the  product  of  the  corn  crop  160  lbs.  per  head,  or 
1,600  lbs.  for  the  4  acres — 400  lbs.  of  beef  per  acre  of  corn, 
or  70  cents  per  bushel  for  the  corn,  not  counting  the  stalks. 
With  this  mode  of  feeding,  there  is  no  doubt  that  good 
corn  may  be  made  to  average  400  lbs.  of  beef  per  acre  on 
cattle  of  1,100  to  1,200  lbs.  weight,  and  still  more  in  feed- 
ing younger  cattle.  The  food  of  support  is  greater  in  an 
animal  of  1,100  lbs.  than  in  one  of  600  to  800  lbs. 


312  FEED1]SG   AN^IMALS. 

CONDIMENTAL   FoODS. 

The  true  feeder,  who,  as  is  said  of  the  poet,  must  "  be 
born,  not  made,"  always  studies  the  likes  and  dislikes  of 
his  animals.  He  knows  that  the  pleasure  ot  eating  has 
much  to  do  with  the  thrift  of  his  cattle;  so  he  not  only 
takes  into  consideration  the  nutriment  that  a  food  con- 
tains, but  whether  the  flavor  is  agreeable  to  the  taste,  and 
will  be  eaten  with  a  relish.  Mere  flavoring  materials  that 
contain  little  or  no  nutriment  often  have  a  decided  influ- 
ence upon  the  growth  and  thrift  of  animals;  and  it  is 
based  upon  this  fact  that  the  compounders  of  condimental 
foods  find  a  market  for  their  cheap  materials  at  such  high 
prices  as  have  left  a  fortune  to  some  of  them  for  profit. 
Our  readers  may,  therefore,  thank  us  for  showing  them 
how  to  manufacture  their  O^vn  condimental  foods  at  the 
simple  cost  of  the  raw  materials.  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes,  of  Roth- 
amstead,  effectually  exposed  the  pretentions  of  Thorley  in 
reference  to  the  wonderful  virtues  of  his  ^*  Condimental 
Food  for  Cattle,"  showing  that  it  had  no  such  value  in  fat- 
tening animals  as  the  price  for  w^liich  it  was  sold  should 
lead  one  to  expect;  that  it  was  a  mere  appetizer,  and  should 
only  be  used  as  such.  It  was  sold  at  18  per  100  lbs.,  and 
had  only  a  nutritive  value  sliglitly  over  that  of  corn-meal. 
As  there  are  a  good  many  of  tliese  mixtures  sold  in  this 
country,  it  may  be  useful  to  give  the  analyses  of  two  of 
the  most  celebrated  of  these  foods  sold  in  England.  Dr. 
Cameron,  of  Dublin,  made  the  following  analyses,  some 
years  ago : 

Condimental  Food— Analyses. 

Thorlejfs.     Bradley's. 

Water , 13.00  12.09 

Albumiuoids 14.92  10.30 

Oil...    0.08  5.80 

Sugar,  gum  mucilage .5(5.80  GO. 21 

Woodv  fibre 5. 40  5.32 

Ash..' 4.08  0.22 

Total   100.00  100.00 


CONDIMEKTAL  FOODS.  313 

It  will  be  noted  that  neither  of  these  foods  is  as  nutri- 
tious as  Imseed-cake ;  but  they  compare  favorably,  except 
in  an  excess  of  albuminoids  and  sugar,  with  corn- meal. 
This  large  proportion  of  sugar  explains  an  important  point 
in  condimental  foods.  It  seems  that  these  compounders 
had  noted  tlie  fact,  that  animals  are  very  fond  of  sweet 
foods.  The  author  became  aware  of  this  many  years  ago, 
and  employed  sugar,  in  tlie  form  of  cheap  molasses,  not 
only  as  an  appetizer,  but  as  an  excellent  fattening  food.  It 
is  well  known  that  a  horse  is  very  fond  of  his  lump  of 
sugar;  and  cattle,  pigs,  and  sheep  are  equally  fond  of  it. 
Sugar  is  wholly  carbonaceous;  and  although  it  is  more 
easily  digested  than  the  carbo-hydrates  of  the  grains  and 
grasses,  yet  it  can  only  be  used  properly  with  some  other 
very  nitrogenous  food.  Take  the  best  quality  of  clover-hay, 
which  has  ^ui  excess  of  albuminoids,  and  a  small  quantity 
of  molasses  >vill  give  a  remarkable  relish  to  the  clover  for 
cattle ;  so  that  they  may  be  rapidly  fattened  upon  merely 
clover  and  molasses.  We  have  had  steers  gain,  in  Septem- 
ber, three  pounds  live-weight  per  day  upon  28  lbs.  of  early- 
cut  and  well-cured  clover-hay  sweetened  with  three  pints, 
or  four  pounds,  of  sorghum  molasses.  Isine  pounds  of 
cut  clover-hay  were  moistened  with  six  quarts  of  water,  in 
which  had  been  dissolved  one  pint  of  molasses.  This  feed 
was  given  three  times  daily.  This  experiment  was  tried  on 
six  steers  for  forty  days.  Let  us  see  how  this  ration  com- 
pares with  the  German  standard  for  cattle  weighing  1,100 
lbs.  Twenty-eight  pounds  of  best  clover-hay  has,  of  dry 
organic  substance,  21.42  lbs*.,  and  4  lbs.  of  sorgham  2.80 
lbs. — making  24.22  lbs.;  of  albuminoids,  the  clover  has 
2.99  lbs.,  molasses  none;  of  carbo-hydrates,  clover  has  10.52 
lbs  ,  the  molasses  2.80  lbs. — making  13.32  lbs.;  of  fat,  clover 
has  .58  lbs.,  and  molasses  none.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
carbo-hydrates  are  deficient  nearly  3  lbs.,  the  other  two 
elements  not  quite  so  much;  but  this  ration,  although 
14 


314  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

apparently  deficient  in  quantity,  is  very  nearly  right  in 
proportion,  and  proved,  practically,  a  full  ration  for  these 
steers.  It  is  quite  certain,  in  this  case,  that  the  4  lbs.  of 
sorghum  molasses  added  much  to  the  gain.  We  had  pre- 
viously tried  a  like  experiment  upon  a  work  horse  that  had 
become  thin,  and  added  100  lbs.  to  his  weight,  in  35  days, 
with  the  three  pints  of  molasses  upon  clover-hay,  but  the 
clover-hay  was  given  ad  libitum,  and  not  weighed.  The 
{\uthor  has  often  used  one  pound  of  molasses  simply  to 
flavor  the  food,  and  found  it  to  pay  excellently  well,  by  in- 
ducing a  better  appetite  for  food,  so  that  more  has  been 
eaten.  In  England,  the  locust  bean  (so  called,  being  made 
from  the  fruit  pods  of  the  locust  tree  raised  in  Southern 
Europe),  which  contains  a  large  amount  of  sugar  has  been 
used;  but  I  am  not  aware  that  it  has  ever  been  imported 
here. 

A  very  good  condimental  food  may  be  made  by  combin- 
ing the  following  materials: 


Articles.  Lbs. 

Linsed  oil-cake 25 

Flax-seed 10 

Molasses 20 

Corn-meal 40 

Ground  turmeric  root 13^ 

Ginger 0)| 

Carraway-seed 0>^ 


Articles.  Lbs. 

Gentian 0}4 

Cream  of  tartar O/i 

Sulphur 1 

Common  salt 1 

Coriander-seed 0% 


Total 100 


The  flax-seed  may  be  boiled  in  10  gallons  of  water  until 
it  forms  a  thin  mucilage;  then  stir  in  the  turmeric,  ginger, 
carraway,  gentian,  cream  of  tartar,  sulphur,  common  salt 
and  coriander;  now  add  the  molasses,  then  the  corn-meal 
and  ground  oil-cake,  stirring  it  well  together.  If  it  is  de- 
signed to  keep  it  long,  it  may  be  dried  in  a  hot-air  chamber 
or  oven,  at  about  steam  heat,  after  which  it  will  require 
grinding  for  convenient  use;  but  the  materials  may  all  be 
ground  together  in  their  natural  state  if  manufactured  for 
commercial  purposes.  There  may  be  a  great  variety  of 
formulas ;  but  this  is  as  good  as  any  of  the  condimental 
foods,  and  is  not  expensive. 


garden-truck  farms.  315 

Feeding  on  Small  Farms. 

There  are  many  small  farms  in  the  Eastern  and  Middle 
States,  near  cities  and  villages,  on  which  grain  and  garden 
truck  are  raised  almost  constantly;  and  the  question  often 
arises,  "  How  shall  this  system  be  continued  without  a 
ruinous  outlay  for  commercial  fertilizers,  or  the  absolute 
exhaustion  of  the  soil?"  Those  farmers  of  this  descrip- 
tion who  have  been  fortunate  enough  to  obtain  manure 
cheaply  from  the  city  or  town  have  continued  to  raise  good 
crops  for  a  long  series  of  years,  whilst  others,  not  so  suc- 
cessful in  obtaining  manure,  have  seen  the  soil  constantly 
growing  less  and  less  in  production,  year  by  year,  and  yet 
appear  never  to  have  discovered  the  great  resource  they 
may  have  at  their  own  doors  for  constant  renewal  of  the 
fertility  of  their  lands.  There  is  usually  a  large  amount  of 
straw  and  various  kinds  of  coarse  fodder  produced  upon 
such  farms,  which  might  furnish  that  part  of  the  ration 
for  feeding  cattle;  and  by  purchasing  freely  of  grain,  bran, 
oil-cake,  corn-starch  feed,  malt  sprouts,  cotton-seed  meal, 
or  any  of  the  various  kinds  of  cattle-foods,  manure,  in 
large  quantity,  may  be  made  upcui  each  of  these  farms,  the 
growth  in  beef  paying  the  cost  of  purchased  food,  leaving 
the  fertilizer  free. 

By  having  well-arranged  stables,  each  of  these  garden 
farmers  may  keep  one  or  two  head  of  cattle  to  each  acre ; 
and,  under  this  management,  everything  raised — not  even 
excepting  weeds — will  be  saved,  and  turned  into  active  ma- 
nure for  his  crops.  With  warm  stables,  a  large  part  of  the 
feedmg  may  be  done  in  fall  and  winter,  Avhen  the  crops  do 
not  require  attention,  and  the  labor  will  be  little  felt. 

Young  and  thrifty  steers  are  always  to  be  found  at  the 
rattle-markets  in  cities;  and,  when  these  are  fattened,  a 
]narket  for  the  beef  will  usually  be  found  at  the  village  or 
market  town. 


316  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

When  feeding  is  conducted  for  the  fertilizer,  as  in  this 
case,  there  will  be  no  motive  for  scanty  feeding;  as  the 
richer  the  food,  the  richer  and  more  valuable  the  manure. 
These  farms  are  particularly  favored  for  tliis  kind  ot  feed- 
ing, as  the  cattle  and  the  leecling  stuus  are  all  near  Jit 
hand.  We  know  of  a  few  instances  where  a  steady  profit 
is  made  upon  the  animals  fed,  besides  all  the  manure,  wiiich 
is  indispensable  for  the  land.  In  these  instances  there  is 
good  judgment  used  in  the  purchase  of  the  cattle  and  tiic 
feeding  stuffs,  and  then  the  animals  are  pushed  till  well 
fattened,  and  find  a  ready  sale,  at  good  figures,  in  the  local 
market. 

Dairy  cows  may  be  kept  instead  of  steers,  if  the  situation 
is  favorable  for  the  sale  of  milk,  which  always  pays  better 
than  other  branches  of  dairying.  Dairying  interferes  more 
with  other  Avork  than  does  steer-feeding,  and  the  manure 
from  milch  cows  is  not  so  rich  as  that  from  fattening  cat- 
tle; but  the  milk  produced  from  a  cow  often  pays  more 
money  than  the  greatest  growth  in  flesh.  Milk,  at  4  cents 
per  quart,  will  give  a  daily  income  through  the  year,  from 
an  extra  cow,  of  40  cents,  which  cannot  be  made  from  the 
growth  of  flesh  and  fat.  The  dairyman,  under  such  cir- 
cumstances, can  afford  to  give  the  best  and  richest  food,  so 
that  the  manure  will  be  excellent.  Butter-making  may  also 
be  conducted  on  these  small  city  or  village  suburb  farms, 
and  then  the  refuse  milk  may  be  fed  to  pigs,  with  grain  ; 
and  the  manure,  in  that  case,  will  be  worth  ([uite  as  much 
as  that  from  fattening  cattle.  One  of  these  systomc  of 
feeding  may  be  practiced,  with  great  profit,  oa  ail  thete 
small  farms,  and  will,  in  the  future,  be  their  great  resource 
for  keeping  up  fertility. 


FEEDING   DAIHY   CATTLE.  317 


CHAPTER  IX. 

UAIKY     CATTLE. 

**  First  catch  your  hare/^  was  the  preliminary  advice  for 
cooking  it.  So,  likewise,  first  select  your  dairy  cattle 
before  you  feed  them.  We  do  not  propose  to  determine 
which  is  the  best  breed  for  the  dairy,  but  merely  to  mention 
a  few  general  principles  that  apply  in  the  selection  of  dairy 
cows  of  any  breed. 

The  dairy  cow  is  almost  an  artiticial  creature.  In  a  state 
of  nature  the  dam  gave  only  milk  enough  to  furnish  food 
for  the  calf  during  a  short  period,  when  her  milk  secretions 
ceased.  The  capacious  udder  of  the  improved  cow;  the 
long  period  of  lactation ;  her  wedge  shape,  caused  by  the 
broadening  of  her  hips,  to  make  room  for  her  great  labo- 
ratory to  work  up  raw  materials  into  milk,  the  stomachs  ; 
her  greater  rotundity  and  fullness  of  frame — all  these 
represent  a  great  many  generations  of  special  breeding  and 
feeding  to  these  ends.  The  bull  that  represents  the 
longest  line  of  great  milk-producing  ancestors,  on  both 
sides,  is  the  most  prepotent  for  the  pui-poses  of  the  dairy- 
man. 

Those  breeds  that  have  been  longest  bred  and  used 
specially  as  milk  producers,  must  contain  the  largest  pro- 
portion of  profitable  milkers;  and  selections  from  these 
will  be  the  best  breeders  of  dairy  stock. 

The  common  dairy  stock  in  this  country  has  such  a 
mixture  of  blood,  that  they  cannot  be  depended  on  as 
breeders,  especially  when  bred  to  males  of  the  same  class. 


318  FEEDIIS^G    ANIMALS. 

Every  dairyman  who  desires  a  herd  of  great  excellence 
must  use  females  only  of  the  common  stock,  and  breed 
these  to  the  best  thoroughbred  male  of  the  strain  of  blood 
he  thinks  best  adapted  to  his  specialty  in  dairying.  These 
females  should  be  selected  with  great  care. 

Selecting  Dairy  Cows. 

Look  first  to  the  great  characteristics  of  a  dairy  cow — a 
large  stomach,  indicated  by  broad  hips,  broad  and  deep 
loin  and  sides,  a  broad  or  double  chine — these  indicate  a 
large  digestive  apparatus,  which  is  the  first  essential  re- 
quisite to  the  manufacture  of  milk.  Secondly,  a  good 
constitution,  depending  largely  upon  the  lungs  and  heart, 
which  should  be  well  developed,  and  this  is  easily  deter- 
mined by  examination;  but  the  vigor  and  tone  of  the 
constitution  is  indicated  by  the  lustre  of  the  hair  and 
brightness  of  the  eye  and  horns,  and  the  whole  make-up. 
Thirdly,  having  determined  her  capacity  for  digesting 
surplus  food  for  making  milk,  look  carefully  to  the  re- 
ceptacle for  the  milk — the  udder — and  the  veins  leading 
to  it.  The  cow  may  assimilate  a  large  amount  of  food 
which  goes  mostly  to  lay  on  flesh  and  fat ;  but  if  she  has  a 
long,  broad,  and  deep  udder,  with  large  milk  veins,  it  is 
safe  to  conclude  that  her  large  capacity  for  digestion  and 
assimilation  are  active  in  filling  this  receptacle.  In  fact 
the  udder  is  the  first  point  to  look  at  in  a  cursory  examina- 
tion of  a  cow,  for  Nature  is  not  apt  to  create  in  vain.  If 
it  reaches  to  the  back  line  of  the  thighs,  well  up  behind, 
reaches  well  forward,  is  broad  and  moderately  deep,  with 
teats  well  apart,  and  skin  soft  and  elastic,  it  may  be  inferred 
that  Nature  has  provided  means  for  filling  it. 

If  the  udder  be  a  small  round  C3dinder,  hanging  down 
in  the  front  of  the  thighs,  like  a  six-quart  pail,  the  cow 
cannot  be  a  profitable  milker,  whatever  digestive  apparatus 
she  may  have. 


SELECTING    DAIKY    COWS.  319 

A  yellow  skin  and  a  yellow  ear  (inside)  is  almost  univer- 
sally regarded  as  present  in  a  cow  that  gives  rich  yellow 
milk  ;  but  after  you  find  the  indications  mentioned  above, 
you  may  admire  as  many  other  points  as  you  please  ;  such 
as  a  first-class  escutcheon,  a  long,  slim  tail,  a  beautifully- 
turned  dishing  face,  a  drooping,  waxy  horn,  a  small,  straight, 
slim  leg,  or  any  other  fancy  points  ;  but  do  not  look  for 
these  till  you  have  found  the  essentials. 

Again :  When  you  have  found  all  these  essentials,  if 
the  cow  is  five  years  old  and  does  not  yield  5,000  pounds  of 
milk  per  year,  she  is  not  worth  possessing  as  a  milker  or 
breeder.  Let  good  appearances  be  coupled  with  perform- 
ance ;  yet,  if  the  cow  be  five  years  old,  and  actually  yields 
6,000  or  more  pounds  of  good  milk,  you  may  safely  buy 
her,  without  regard  to  her  points.  She  must  digest  the  food 
to  make  it,  and  her  machinery  is  so  far  above  criticism. 

But  the  length  of  her  "[leriod  of  lactation  must  not  be 
forgotten ;  this  is  a  quality  inherited  as  much  as  her 
capacity  for  quantity.  A  cow  that,  well  fed,  will  not  milk 
for  ten  months,  is  not  to  be  desired.  A  moderate  and 
nearly  uniform  quantity  continuing  for  ten  months,  will 
produce  a  larger  aggregate  yield  than  heavy  milking  for  a 
short  period.  Twenty-three  pounds  per  day  for  ten  months 
will  give  7,000  lbs.;  while  a  short  period  of  seven  months 
would  require  33  lbs.  per  day.  Nearly  all  great  annual 
yielders  of  milk  have  long  periods.  This  is  a  matter  of  so 
much  consideration,  that  a  cow  having  a  short  period  of 
lactation  should  be  rejected  as  a  breeder,  as  this  would  be 
inherited  by  her  offspring. 

Still  another  important  consideration,  even  in  the  selec- 
tion of  a  common-blood  cow,  is  her  pedigree.  If  you  can 
find  her  descent  from  a  large-milking  dam,  grandam,  and 
great-grandam,  this  will  greatly  increase  the  probability  of 
your  success  in  breeding  her  to  a  thoroughbred  bull  from 
deep-milking  ancestors. 


320  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

Now  a  few  cows  selected  with  all  these  requisites  will  lay 
the  foundation  for  breeding  such  a  herd  of  dairy  cows  as 
will  be  a  source  of  perpetual  delight  and  profit  to  the 
owner.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  simple  folly  to  rear  a  calf 
for  the  dairy  from  a  poor  milker.  It  is  bad  enough  to 
keep  an  unprofitable  cow  for  a  season,  but  it  is  deliberately 
throwiug  away  good  food  to  breed  from  such  a  cow,  with 
the  proof  before  you  that  the  heifer  will  never  pay  for  her 
keep.  Of  course  no  males  will  be  kept  of  such  crosses  for 
breeding  purposes. 

A  thoroughbred  male  must  always  be  used  to  insure  any 
proper  measure  of  success.  A  large  dairyman  may  replace 
his  herd  with  cows  of  his  own  breeding  on  this  plan,  by  hav- 
ing one-third  to  one-half  of  his  cows  selected  for  breeders. 
But  the  calves  from  these  selected  cows,  sired  by  a  thorough- 
bred bull,  must  also  be  selected  after  they  have  grown  to 
sufiicient  age  to  determine  their  qualifications.  This  process 
of  selection  should  be  also  rigidly  enforced  in  thorough- 
bred breeding.  Had  this  been  done  rigorously  with  all 
our  pure  dairy  breeds,  it  would  now  be  simply  necessary  to 
purchase  a  Jersey,  an  Ayrshire,  or  a  Hoi  stein,  to  possess  a 
good  cow  of  either  particular  breed;  but  they  have  been 
bred  so  indiscriminately,  and  all  their  progeny  kept  till  a 
thorough  weeding  out  is  necessary. 

Let  no  dairyman  be  content  to  purchase  the  first  male 
or  female  he  may  find  of  either  of  these  breeds,  but  in  all 
cases  learn  the  actual  performance  of  the  animal  and  its 
ancestors.  A  poor  Jersey  or  Ayrshire  is  no  better  than 
any  other  poor  cow  ;  and  if  it  be  a  male,  he  is  likely  to  do 
great  harm,  by  distributing  his  worthless  blood,  and  thus 
bringing  disappointment  to  the  purchaser  and  discourage- 
ment to  the  extension  of  the  breed.  The  male  in  a  system 
of  improved  breeding  is  chosen  for  his  prepotency  ;  and  it 
is  not  sufficient  that  his  blood  is  of  the  breed  desired,  but 
he   must   bring   with   him   the   blood   of   a   long   line  of 


SIZE   OF   DAIRY   COWS.  321 

ancestors,  proved,  by  actual  performance,  to  possess  the 
qualities  desired.  The  only  pedigree  of  real  value  repre- 
sents performance  in  the  ancestors  of  the  animal.  It  is 
necessary  to  make  this  point  strongly,  because  breeding, 
for  the  last  twenty  years,  has  had  little  reference  to  any- 
thing save  purity  of  blood  and  sundry  fancy  points.  We 
have  entered  upon  a  realistic  period,  which  demands  real 
merit  first,  leaving  fancy  where  it  belongs — in  the  rear. 
Witness  the  tests  of  butter  cows  for  the  last  few  years  ; 
the  great  prices  brought  by  those  having  the  great  butter 
yielders  in  their  line  of  ancestors. 

Size   of   Dairy   Cows. 

The  question  of  size  in  dairy  cows  has  a  bearing  upon 
the  economy  of  feeding,  but  the  exact  law  practically 
governing  the  expenditure  of  food  proportioned  to  the  size 
of  the  animal  in  production  has  not  been  fully  settled ; 
yet  experiments  have  been  made  which  throw  some  light 
upon  it. 

Natural  principles  applied  to  it  Avould  appear  to  favor 
large  cows,  as  they  liave  less  external  surface  for  the 
radiation  of  animal  heat  than  smaller  ones,  in  proportion 
to  weight.  It  is  well  settled  that  two  animals  weighing 
2,400  pounds  will  consume  less  food  of  support  than  three 
of  the  same  aggregate  weight.  It  may  be  stated  as  a 
general  law,  that  the  food  of  support  decreases  propor- 
tionally with  the  increase  of  size  in  animals.  We  find  an 
article  in  a  paper  illustrating  this  point,  without  credit  to 
the  author;  but  we  think  it  was  written  by  Prof.  Arnold. 
He  sets  out  by  stating  this  difference  in  the  food  of  support 
according  to  size,  but  doubts  its  application,  practically,  to 
the  production  of  milk ;  and  he  illustrates  it  by  reference 
to  three  dairies:  the  first  grade  Short-hoi'ns,  the  second 
natives,  and  the  third  Jerseys  and  their  grades.     He  says  : 

"  The  dairy  of  Mr.  I.  Boies,  of  IlHnois  [about  100  cows],  is 


322  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

a  good  one  for  setting  the  use  of  large  cows  in  its  best  light. 
In  the  first  place,  Mr.  Boies  is  Avidely  known  as  one  of  the 
best  of  dairy  managers.  He  buys  and  milks  a  great  many 
cows,  and  his  experience  and  close  observation  have  made 
him  one  of  the  best  judges  of  milking  qualities.  He  never 
selects  a  poor  cow.  He  buys  large  cows,  and,  feeding  with 
a" very  liberal  hand,  his  herd  is  heavy.  Reviewed  in  June, 
the  year  following  their  yield  of  3143^  lbs.  of  butter  per 
cow,  they  were  estimated  to  have  an  average  live  weight  of 
1 ,200  lbs.  per  head.  They  were  in  high  order,  and  many 
of  them  could  have  been  sent  to  the  shambles  at  a  good 
price.  It  would  be  very  interesting  to  compare  the  pro-- 
ducts  of  his  dairy  with  those  of  another  having  an  equal 
number  of  Jerseys,  or  other  small  cows,  which  w^ere  treated 
as  well  as  he  treats  his.  But  no  such  herd  can  be  named. 
Good  managers  of  less  herds  of  smaller-sized  cows  are 
often  met  with.  Mr.  Oliver  Bronson,  of  Chautauqua 
County,  New  York,  has  a  herd  of  twenty  natives  wiiich, 
vii'wed  in  May  last,  were  estimated  to  weigh  150  lbs.  per 
head  less  than  the  herd  of  Mr.  Boies.  They  are  kindly 
cared  for,  and  produced  last  year  302  lbs.  of  butter  per 
cow.  Mr.  0.  C.  Blodgett,  of  the  same  county  as  Mr. 
Bronson,  has  a  herd  of  twenty-five  Jerseys  and  their  grades, 
all  small  cows.  Viewed  also  in  May,  they  were  estmiated 
to  have  an  average  live  weight  of  780  lbs.  Though  very 
skillfully  managed  and  fed,  their  yield  last  year  was  234^^ 
lbs.  of  butter  to  a  cow — a  diminutive  yield,  compared  with 
tliose  of  Messrs.  Boies  and  Bronson,  of  80  lbs.  per  cow  less 
than  one,  and  67>^  less  than  the  other.  Judged  by  the 
usual  standard  of  product  per  cow,  tliis  dairy  would  by 
most  dairymen  be  at  once  set  down  as  the  least  desirable 
and  the  least  profitable  of  the  three.  But,  in  fact,  the 
reverse  is  true.  Mr.  Blodgett's  dairy  is  the  most  profitable 
in  the  list,  for  he  gets  the  most  butter  in  proportion  to  the 
food  consumed  [that  is  the  question  at  issue].     As  234  is 


FOOD   AXD    SIZE    OF   DAIRY   COWS.  323 

just  three-tenths  of  780,  each  of  his  cows  (omitting  the 
odd  K  lb.  of  butter  per  cow)  produces  annually  three-tenths 
of  her  live  weight  in  butter.*' 

The  conclusion  here  is  based  upon  an  assumption  con- 
tradicting his  statement,  that  the  food  of  support  decreases 
in  proportion  as  the  size  increases.  Had  the  food  actually 
consumed  by  these  herds  been  noted,  the  results,  compared, 
wonld  have  been  of  great  value.  But,  although  we  have 
no  carefully-tried  experiments  in  this  country  to  determine 
the  comparative  economy  in  milk  production  of  large  and 
small  cows,  and  the  opinions  of  those  who  keep  the  dif- 
ferent breeds  is  in  accordance  with  the  size  kept,  yet  this 
question  has  received  i)ractical  attention  in  Europe,  where, 
by  numerous  experiments,  the  relation  of  food  to  product, 
in  dairy  cows  of  different  weights,  has  been  very  well 
settled,  so  far  as  to  quantity  of  milk;  but  as  to  quantity  of 
butter,  we  are  not  aware  of  any  experiments  settling  it. 

Baron  Ockel,  of  Frankenfelde,  experimented  with  Ayr- 
shires  and  Holland  cows,  with  the  following  result:  The 
average  weight  of  the  Ayrshires  was  806  lbs.,  and  of  the 
Hollanders  1,016  lbs.  The  Ayrshires  ate  3.3  lbs.  of  hay 
for  each  100  lbs.  live  weight,  while  the  Holland  cows  con- 
sumed 2.8  lbs.  Of  the  feed  consumed,  l-60th  of  their  live 
weight  only  was  required  as  food  of  support  to  the  Hol- 
landers, w^hile  l-50tli  was  required  as  food  of  support  to 
the  Ayrshires.  He  then  tested  the  effect  of  size  on  the 
same  breed.  He  took  four  Holland  cows,  the  two  heaviest 
of  which  weighed  2.112  lbs.,  on  June  l-lth,  and  the  lighter 
two  1,537  lbs.  He  then  placed  the  two  heaviest  in  one 
stall,  and  the  two  lightest  in  another,  and  fed  them  sep- 
arately for  16  days,  the  feed  being  weighed  as  fed  to  each 
lot,  and,  if  not  all  eaten,  what  remained  w^as  weighed  and 
deducted.  Their  live  weight  remained  unchanged  during 
the  time — with  the  following  result: 


324 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


H 

^ 

X 

J3 

•i  . 

73 

s ""  ■^ 

COWB. 

Ss 

I 

.     S 

:§! 

c 

u 

£S 

is 

f^J 

^S.;^ 

o 

S 

S 

:2 

lbs 

qts. 

qts. 

lbs. 

Heavy  COWS 

4,9-21 

340 

7.4 

14.6 

Light  cows  

3,859 

240 

5.5 

16.0 

Tins  experiment  shows  that  the  same  hiw  holds  with, 
different  weights  of  the  same  breed,  as  in  different  weights 
of  different  breeds;  and  that  it  is  the  natural  effect  of  size 
upon  the  food  of  support,  and  that  this  is  probably  in 
proportion  to  the  area  of  outside  surface  of  the  animal. 

In  1852,  a  series  of  experiments  were  made  at  11  different 
localities  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  by  order  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society,  during  a  period  of  five  3'ears,  the 
cows  selected  being  of  the  best  "scrubs,"  Allgauers,  Olden- 
burgers,  and  Hollanders,  the  last  two  being  really  of  the 
same  breed,  the  difference  relating  merely  to  the  manage- 
ment in  different  localities.  The  results,  per  annum,  for 
five  years,  were  reported  as  follows  : 

With  Common  Feed  and  Care. 

Scrub  cows  averaged 1,437  quarts  per  annum. 

Allgauers  "         2,334 

Oldenburgers      "         2,220 

Hollanders  '•        2,062 

With  the  Best  of  Feed  and  Care. 

Scrub  cows  averaged 2,365  quarts  per  annum. 

Allgauers  "         3,000 

Oldenburgers      "'         3,712        "  " 

Hollanders  "  3,232 

The  scrub  cows  were  much  lighter  than  the  others. 
One  dairy  of  Hollanders,  of  190  cows,  averaged  4,07G 
quarts  per  cow.  These  latter  experiments  seem  to  have 
been  undertaken  principally  to  determine  the  breed  of 
cows  producing  the  largest  product,  and  these  were  found 


POOD   AND   SIZE   OF    DAIRY   COWS.  325 

to  be  the  largest  cows  ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  aii 
account  was  kept  of  the  amount  of  food  given  to  each  kind. 
In  regard  to  size,  Caspari  made  18  experiments  in  feeding 
milch  cows,  with  a  view  of  ascertaining  how  many  pounds 
of  hay,  or  its  equivalent,  it  required  to  make  100  lbs.  of 
milk.  He  found,  in  Prussia,  100  lbs.  of  hay,  fed  to  Hol- 
land cows,  made  25K  quarts  of  milk ;  and  the  same  fed  to 
the  Allgaucrs,  made  30.98  quarts  of  milk.  At  11  dairies 
in  Saxony  100  lbs.  of  hay  fed  produced,  in — 

Oldenburgers 25.40  quarts. 

Hollanders 26.10        " 

Allgauers 30.00        " 

Scurbs : 23.65        " 

Villeroy's  experiments  resulted  as  follows : 

Hollanders 28.92  quarts  per  100  lbs.  hay. 

Yorkshires 27.45        "  •' 

Devons 19.13        "• 

Herefords 15.97        "  " 

Jerseys 26.33        "  «• 

Allgauers 27.61 

These  experiments  all  seem  to  tell  the  same  story.  The 
Jerseys  are  the  smallest,  and  peculiarly  a  milking  breed  ; 
but  they  produced  less,  per  a  given  quantity  of  food,  than 
either  of  the  larger  milking  breeds.  We  should  put  the 
Hollanders  against  the  Jerseys  as  a  fair  test,  because  both 
have  been  bred  for  a  long  i3eriod  expressly  as  milk  yielders, 
and  they  both  have  a  high  reputation  in  that  specialty. 

We  will  now  give  the  German  mode  of  feeding  in  Dr. 
Rhode's 

Milk  Ratioi^,  at  Eldena, 

in  Pomerania.  This  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  agricul- 
tural schools  i-n  Prussia.  He  details  those  experiments  in 
liis  chapter  ^'  On  the  Breeds  of  Cattle  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Holland."  We  do  not  propose  to  go  into  the  characteristics 
of  the  breeds  he  describes,  but  merely  to  consider  the 
ration,  and  the  result  upon  large  and  small  cows. 


:j-^o 


FEEDIXG    ANIMALS. 


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>> 

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w 

o 

Cows. 

£^. 

«  eS 

u 

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s 

o 

Is. 

Is. 

^ 

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< 

>^ 

Pu, 

^ 

Small  Cows. 

qts. 

qts. 

qls. 

lbs. 

3  Ayrshire  cows 

5,386 

1.795 

5.00 

4,485 

9.;i37 

2,334 

6.30 

5.835 

Large  Cows. 

3  Breitenburs?  cows 

8,594 

2.865 

8.00 

7,161 

22  Hollaud  cows 

78,100 

3,550 

9.85 

8,875 

The  highest  yield  of  the  Ayrshires  was  5,582  lbs.,  and 
tlie  lowest  3,537  lbs. 

The  highest  yield  of  the  Toiidern  cows  was  7,012  lbs., 
and  the  lowest  4,G40  lbs. 

The  highest  yield'of  the  Breitenburg  cows  was  7,3G5  lbs., 
and  the  lowest  7,050  lbs. 

The  highest  yield  of  the  Holland  cows  was  15,355  lbs., 
and  the  lowest  G,315  lbs. 

The  average  winter  ration  was  composed  of  10  lbs.  of 
straw  of  summer  grain,  2K  lbs.  of  oat  and  wheat  chaflf, 
25  lbs.  of  turnips,  10  lbs.  of  hay,  8  lbs.  of  brewers'  grains, 
wet,  and  3  lbs.  of  iTe  bran.  This  contained  of  digestible 
nutriment  3.28  lbs.  of  albuminoids,  and  14.3  lbs.  of  carbo- 
hydrates, having  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:4.2 — equal  in  nutri- 
tive value  to  42  lbs.  of  hay. 

The  average  ration  in  summer  is  135  lbs.  of  green  clover, 
and  8  lbs.  of  dry  hay.  The  hay  is  to  modify  the  suc- 
culence of  the  clover.  Dr.  Ehode  says  this  ration  is  equal 
to  45  lbs.  of  hay,  and  contains  of  digestible  albuminoids  5.7 
lbs.,  and  of  carbo-hydrates  14.91  lbs. — nutritive  ratio  1:2.5. 

He  says  the  small  cows  did  not  eat  so  much  as  the  large 
Holland  cows,  though  the  food  of  each  was  not  weighed  ; 
yet  when  the  same  amount  of  food  was  placed  in  two  racks, 
it  was  found  that  9  laro^e  cows  ate  as  much  as  10  small 


EOOD   AND   SIZE   OF   DAIRY    COWS.  327 

COWS  per  day,  and  he  thus  coimted  them  as  9  to  10,  in  pro- 
portion of  food  ;  or  tlie  small  cows  consumed  45  lbs.  of 
hay,  or  its  equivalent,  while  the  large  consume  50  lbs. 
According  to  the  specified  yield,  they  severally  require  of 
food  for  the  production  of  one  quart  of  milk: 

Holland  cows,  little  more  than 5.00  lbs.,  hay  value. 

Breitenburg  cows,  little  more  than H.25     "  " 

Tonderu  cows,  little  more  than 7.00     "  " 

Ayrshire  cows,  little  more  than 9.00     "  " 

The  Holland  cows  weigh  from 1,200  to  1,400  lbs. 

The  Breitenburg  cows  weigh  fi'om 1,100  "  1,300   " 

The  Tondern  cows  weigh  from 900  "  1,000   '* 

The  Ayrshire  cows  weigh  from 800"     900   '* 

By  this  it  appears  that  the  large  cows  were  the  more 
economical  milk  producers.  Here  Dr.  Rhode,  at  the  head 
of  the  Eldena  Agricultural  School,  found  a  pretty  wide 
difference  between  the  Hollanders  and  Ayrshires  ;  and  we 
are  quite  inclined  to  think,  if  the  food  of  each  separate 
class  of  animals  had  been  accurately  kept  through  the 
year,  the  difference  could  not  have  been  so  large  as  he 
makes  the  production  from  the  same  food — 80  per  cent. — 
in  favor  of  the  Holland  cows.     Dr.  Ehode  remarks  on  this: 

"  It  cannot  be  questioned,  from  these  results,  to  which 
race  belongs  the  advantage.  They  value  none  in  Eldena 
for  milk  but  the  Holland  cows." 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  at  so  celebrated  a  school  of 
agriculture  the  most  careful  record  should  not  be  kept  of 
the  exact  difference  in  the  amount  of  food  required  for 
cows  of  the  different  breeds  and  sizes,  and  also  the  com- 
parative butter  as  well  as  milk  yield  of  the  cows,  so  that  a 
just  conclusion  might  be  arrived  at  as  to  the  productive 
value  of  the  two  breeds,  fed  under  precisely  the  same 
circumstances.  Still  the  experiments  have  an  important 
bearing  in  the  evidence  as  to  the  relative  cost  of  feeding 
large  and  small  animals. 

So  far,  then,  as  the  evidence  is  before  us,  we  must  con- 
clude that  size — all  other  things  being  equal — is  favorable 


328  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

to  tlie  economical  yielding  of  milk — that  it  actually  takes 
less  food  to  produce  100  lbs.  of  milk  with  a  cow  of  equal 
merit,  weighing  1,000  lbs.,  than  one  weighing  800  lbs.  In 
accordance  with  these  experiments,  then,  we  may  infer  that 
Mr  Israel  Boies'  dairy  produced  milk  at  a  less  cost  of  food 
thar  Mr.  Blodgett's ;  but  we  cannot  pronounce  on  the 
question  of  the  cost  of  butter,  for  that  has  not  been  as  yet 
tested;  at  least  we  have  seen  no  well-authenticated  experi- 
mentif  rejDorted  which  settle  it.  Mr.  Blodgett's  Jerseys 
may  possibly  yield  milk  so  much  richer  than  Mr.  Boies' 
large  grades  as  to  make  up  the  difference  in  quantity;  but 
the  probabilities  are,  even  here,  against  the  small  cows,  as 
the  difference  m  quantity  of  milk  must  have  been  very 
large.  The  argument  of  the  writer  of  the  article  com- 
paring the  three  dairies  mentioned,  is  to  show  the  probable 
waste  of  the  food  of  support  in  keeping  cows  of  1,200  lbs., 
as  the  400  lbs.  above  the  weight  of  the  Jerseys  he  supposes 
to  be  mere  surplusage,  and  maintained  gratuitously.  Those 
European  experiments  given,  utterly  overthrow  this  sup- 
position, and  show  that  the  heavier  cows  require  less  food 
111  proportion  to  production  of  milk.  We  may,  therefore, 
assure  the  dairyman  who  keeps  large  cows,  of  good  milking 
quality,  that  he  is  not  throwing  away  food  upon  size. 

Yet  we  do  not  think  the  large  cows  are  necessarily  the 
most  economical  for  all  purposes.  The  Jerseys  and  Ayr- 
shires  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  large  districts  of  this 
country — hilly  regions,  rough  pastures,  but  bearing  grasses 
of  the  finest  quality  for  dairy  products.  We  could  pro- 
fitably use  twenty  times  as  many  as  we  nov/  have  of  Jerseys 
and  Ayrshires.  Besides,  the  Jerseys  yield  a  highly-colored 
l)utter,  of  such  fine  quality  and  great  popularity  as  to  bring 
the  highest  price  in  market. 

It  will  have  been  noted  in  this  discussion  of  the  best 
cows  to  feed  for  dairy  purposes,  that  cows  of  poor  appetite 
and   small  eaters  are  not  wanted — that  cows  which  have 


FEEDING   DAIRY   CATTLE.  339 

the  beet  appetites  and  the  largest  digestive  power  are  to  be 
sought  for—the  best  possible  machines  for  turning  food 
into  milk. 

Feedixg  Dairy  Cattle. 

We  have  treated  of  the  selection  of  dairy  cows,  and  the 
effect  of  size  upon  the  economy  of  milk  production.  We 
are  now  prepared  to  discuss  the  effect  of  food  and  care 
upon  dairy  stock.  And  here  the  author  must  be  pardoned 
for  quoting  a  few  paragraphs  from  a  paper  wliich  he  read 
before  the  American  Dairymen's  Association,  in  January, 
1878.  If  dairymen  could  only  be  impressed  witli  the  fact, 
and  firmly  believe  that  whatsoever  is  produced  in  beef' 
milk  or  wool,  must  come  from  the  food  which  the  animal 
eats,  what  a  great  and  salutary  change  Avould  at  once  take 
place  all  over  the  countrv ! 

There  is  not  a  movement  made  by  any  creature  that 
must  not  be  compensated  for  by  the  food.  How  directly 
this  bears  upon  the  profits  of  the  dairyman!  If  cows  are 
allowed  to  go  two  miles,  or  even  one  mile,  to  pasture,  or 
anyone  is  allowed  to  misuse  them,  it  must  be  paid  for  in 
food.  If  cows  are  driven  hurriedly,  or  chased  bv  dogs,  the 
quality  of  their  milk  is  changed:"^  it  becomes  poor— defi- 
cient in  oil— the  nervous  excitement  uses  it  up.  How  evi- 
dent, then,  is  it,  that  all  exercise  mast  be  paid  for  in  food, 
and  that  the  dairyman  should  most  judiciously  regulate 
this  exercise  ! 

Again:  there  is  not  one  degree  of  heat  that  is  not  pro- 
duced by  the  food.  The  slightest  change  affects  the  food. 
If  cows  are  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  15  degrees  below 
zero,  food  enough  must  be  consumed  by  the  animal  to 
overcome  the  effects  of  this  intense  cold. 

We  want  to  emphasize  this  great  Jaw  of  equivalence. 
There  must  be  something  paid  for  everything.  Something 
cannot  be  produced  from  nothing. 


380  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

Then,  again,  the  cow  must  be  supported  first.  She  must 
be  sustained  before  she  can  produce  any  milk  whatever. 
Some  dairymen  appear  to  think  that  a  cow  may  be  kept 
poor  tlirough  the  winter,  and  produce  the' same  milk  in  the 
spring  as  if  she  were  in  good  condition  ;  but  this  is  a  fatal 
mistake.  It  will  take  nearly  all  a  poor  cow  can  eat  to  sup- 
ply the  wants  of  her  own  system :  and  what  this  supply  of 
the  living  wants  of  the  system  is,  few  understand.  It 
requires  two-thirds  of  a  full  ration  to  keep  a  cow  in  fair 
condition — her  food  of  support — before  there  is  any  milk 
production.  This  has  been  carefully  tested  by  many  exper- 
imenters. We  have  proved  it  in  a  number  of  instances. 
It  is  a  sound  general  statement  that  two-thirds  of  the  food 
goes  to  keep  the  animal  alive.  Up  to  that  point  all  is 
expenditure  and  no  return. 

A  growing  animal  that  weighs  four,  five  or  six  hundred 
pounds  in  the  fall,  and  only  weighs  the  same  in  the  spring, 
IS  more  than  unprofitable;  the  food  consumed  to  keep  it 
over  is  utterly  thrown  away  ;  it  is  as  effectually  lost  as  wood 
that  has  been  burned  in  a  stove.  All  that  is  got  from  the 
cow  IS  its  droppings,  as  there  remains  the  ash  from  the  wood. 
It  will  thus  be  seeii  that  all  the  profit,  if  there  is  any, 
must  come  from  the  last  third  of  food  given  the  cows ; 
and,  if  that  be  withheld,  only  loss  is  the  result. 

In  regard  to  dairy  profits,  the  cow  is  simply  a  machine 
for  producing  milk — precisely  as  much  as  a  steam-engine  is 
a  machine  for  producing  power  and  motion;  if  the  steam- 
boiler  is  supplied  with  just  as  much  fuel  as  is  required  to 
keep  the  water  warm  there  is  no  power;  the  boiler  mu.«t 
have  sufficient  fuel  to  produce  extra  heat  before  any  work 
can  be  accomplished. 

It  makes  a  considerable  difference  what  kind  of  a  cow  is 
kept  to  produce  milk,  just  as  it  does  the  kind  of  boiler  and 
engine  used  to  produce  motion  and  work;  and,  therefore, 
it  is  important  in  purchasing  and  breeding  cows  for  dairy 


SPECIAL  FEEDING   FOR   MILK.  331 

purposes  to  look  to  the  capacity  of  the  cow  to  turn  the 
food  into  milk.  But,  without  generous  and  judicious  feed- 
ing, breed  is  of  little  consequence.  If  a  cow  only  produces 
3,000  pounds  of  milk  per  year,  she  is  kept  at  a  loss.  A 
good  cow,  well  fed,  will  yield  6,000  pounds  of  good  milk  ; 
and  the  cost  of  producing  this  will  be  only  one-eighth 
more  than  the  3,000  pounds  from  the  poor  cow.  Without 
selection  of  cows,  and  judicious  and  abundant  feeding, 
dairymen  cannot  receive  anything  worthy  of  their  labor. 

Special  Feeding  for  Milk. 

Since  certain  very  partial  experiments  were  made  in 
Germany  to  test  the  effect  of  special  feeding  upon  the  com- 
position of  milk,  dairymen  have  been  told  to  seek  quality 
of  milk  in  the  breed  and  not  in  the  food.  We  are  always 
ready  to  admit  and  emphasize  the  value  of  breed ;  but,  as 
we  have  seen,  the  best  breed  of  cows  must  have  judicious 
feeding  to  render  their  qualities  of  any  material  value. 
Had  food  nothing  to  do  in  fixing  the  excellent  qualities  for 
which  each  breed  is  so  much  prized  ?  As  far  back  as  the 
history  of  the  cow  reaches,  the  belief  of  the  learned  and 
unlearned  has  been,  that  the  quality  may  be  improved,  and 
the  flow  of  milk  increased,  by  special  feeding.  Virgil,  in 
his  "  Georgics,"  makes  special  mention  of  articles  of  food 
peculiarly  adapted  to  cause  a  flow  of  rich  milk.  Darwin 
mentions  many  instances  where  food  has  been  the  cause  of 
variation  in  animals,  while  selection  and  breeding  after- 
wards perpetuated  that  variation.  There  is  no  room  to 
doubt,  on  philosophical  principles,  that  variation  from  a 
fixed  type  of  animal  has  been  caused  by  food  and  climate. 
Suppose  the  renowned  Bakewell,  who  made  such  a  trans- 
formation in  long-horn  cattle  and  long-wooled  sheep,  had 
practiced  on  this  doctrine,  that  a  selection  of  the  breed  and 
not  the  food  would  lead  to  the  highest  excellence,  does 
anybody,  after  due  consideration,  believe  that  if  he  had 


332  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

merely  studied  the  external  chamcteristics  of  animals,  and 
used  the  greatest  skill  in  coupling  those  having  a  proper 
combination  of  points,  Avithout  seeking  any  improvement 
in  feeding,  he  would  now  be  regarded  as  the  greatest  im- 
prover of  cattle  and  sheep  ?  Perhaps  some  one  may  answer 
that  breeding  and  feeding  for  beef  is  different  in  principle 
from  feeding  for  milk  ;  but,  since  milk  is  made  from  the 
blood  at  the  same  degree  of  elaboration,  as  fits  it  for  assim- 
ilation into  the  tissues,  and  that  what  goes  to  lay  on  fat  or 
build  up  flesh  in  the  stall-fed  animal  goes  tuvthe  udder  in 
the  milch  cow,  whatever  food  will,  do  in  increasing  ihe  apt- 
ness of  an  animal  to  fatten,  and  in  laying  on  and  flavoring 
flesh,  it  will  do,  directed  by  intelligence,  in  increasing  the 
secretion  and  improving  the  quality  of  milk.  In  philoso- 
phy and  fact,  the  quality  and  quantity  of  milk  is  as  per- 
fectly controlled  by  quality  and  quantity  of  food  as  is  the 
quality  and  weight  of  flesh  laid  upon  a  stall-fed  animal. 
When,  by  skill  in  feeding,  you  have  developed  a  particular 
part  or  secretion,  you  may  often  succeed  in  fixing  this  in 
the  progeny  by  breeding.  We  may,  therefore,  properly 
credit  feeding  *with  the  beginning  of  all  development. 
Food  must  first  create  the  improvement,  and  then  breeding 
and  feeding  must  continue  it.  This  statement  has  no 
reference  to  the  improvement  made  on  scrub  animals  by 
crossing  thoroughbreds  on  them.  Here  the  improved 
blood  raises  the  standard  of  the  inferior  blood  ;  but  the 
progeny  is  only  an  improvement  on  the  inferior  animal. 
When  we  speak  of  improvement  by  feeding,  we  mean  an 
improvement  on  the  oest  blood  of  the  race  experimented 
on.  Example :  Suppose  we  take  a  Short-horn,  Ayrshire, 
Jersey  or  other  breed,  the  improvement  must  be  over  any 
of  its  known  ancestors.  All  these  improvements  require 
much  time  ;  and,  therefore,  an  improved  milking  strain 
of  blood  is  of  great  value,  and  its  value  is  in  proportion  to 
its  fixed  character.     But  these  fixed  characteristics  cannot 


SPECIAL  FEEDING.  333 

stand  long  against  an  entire  cl]an2:e  of  the  food  and  sur- 
roundings which  produced  them. 

That  you  can  take  an  ordinary  cow,  of  good  constitution 
and  form,  and  greatly  improve  both  the  quality  and  quan- 
tity of  milk,  we  have  demonstrated  in  several  instances. 
Let  us  take  some  examples  :  First,  a  heifer  with  her  third 
calf,  at  four  years  old,  that  had  in  her  first  and  second 
years  given  a  very  moderate  quantity  of  milk;  and,  on  a 
test  during  the  fourth  week  of  her  second  lactation,  made 
5  pounds  of  butter  from  150  pounds  of  milk,  and  during 
the  fourth  week  of  her  third  season  made  5*^8  pounds  of 
butter  from  IGO  pounds  of  milk.  At  the  close  of  this  sec- 
ond test  we  began  the  experiment  of  developing  her.  She 
was  a  cow  of  rather  spare  habit.  It  was  the  latter  part  of 
January,  and  her  ordinary  food  had  been  timothy  and 
clover  hay,  with  one  peck  of  carrots  daily. 

The  additional  food  began  with  one  pint  of  oil-meal  and 
three  quarts  of  bran  per  day,  which  was  gradually  increased 
during  the  first  month  .to  six  quarts  of  bran;  the  second 
montii,  to  one  quart  of  oil-meal,  six  quarts  of  bran  and 
two  quarts  of  corn-meal;  and  this  feed  was  continued  till 
grass  came,  when  one  pint  of  oil-meal  and  four  quarts  of 
bran  were  continued  through  the  summer.  A  test  at  the 
end  of  the  third  month  gave  a  yield  per  w^eek  of  6  pounds 
of  butter  from  170  pounds  of  milk.  A  test  in  July  gave 
i\}i  pounds  of  butter  in  seven  days,  from  1G5  pounds  of 
milk.  During  the  whole  of  this  season  her  yield  of  milk 
was  much  more  uniform,  thougli  there  was  but  a  small 
increase  in  quantity  or  improvement  in  quality.  Before 
dropping  her  fourth  calf,  at  five  years  old,  she  was  fed 
specially  for  six  weeks  with  one  quart  of  oil-meal  and  four 
quarts  of  bran  and  one  quart  of  corn-meal  per  day.  This 
had  a  remarkable  effect  in  developing  her  udder.  Had  to 
milk  her  a  few  days  before  coming  in.  Fed  her,  after 
coming  in,  as  the  year  before.     Tested  her  milk  during  14 


334  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

days,  commencing  the  fifteenth  day  after  calving.  Result: 
20  pounds  of  butter  from  462  pounds  of  milk.  This  sec- 
ond season  was  an  astonishing  improvement  on  t-he  last, 
producing  about  CO  per  cent,  more  throughout,  with  only 
ten  per  cent,  additional  food.  This  cow  was  kept  till  18 
years  old,  and  she  proved  a  first-class  cow  for  quantity  and 
quality,  the  quality  being  improved  more  than  the  quantity. 

That  we  might  determine  whether  the  result  in  this  first 
case  might  have  been  largely  due  to  the  natural  develop- 
ment of  a  heifer,  a  six-year-old  cow,  that  had  been  pur- 
chased the  May  previously,  and  found  to  be  a  very  ordinary 
cow,  yielding  only  25  pounds  of  milk  per  day,  in  the  flush, 
and  commenced  feeding  her  ten  weeks  before  coming  in. 
The  ration  of  extra  feed  at  first  was  small,  as  with  the  first 
cow,  and  increased,  week  by  week,  until  a  week  before  she 
dropped  her  calf,  when  the  extra  feed  was  discontinued,  to 
prevent  a  feverish  state  of  the  system  at  that  critical  period. 

Her  udder  increased  much  beyond  its  previous  dimen- 
sions; and,  on  testing  for  quantity  during  the  third  week, 
she  gave  an  average  of  30  pounds  per  day,  yielding  8  pounds 
of  butter.  This  cow  was  fed  like  the  former  through  the 
season,  and  showed  an  increase  of  milk  much  beyond  that 
cow  the  first  season.  This  was  attributed  to  the  extra 
feeding  for  over  two  months  before  coming  in.  She  was 
fed  m  like  manner  two  months  before  dropping  her  next 
calf;  and  her  udder  Avas  so  largely  increased  in  size  that 
she  required  milking  ten  days  before  calving.  On  a  test, 
during  the  third  week,  she  gave  280  pounds  of  milk,  and 
made  12  pounds  of  butter.  This  was  an  increase  of  one- 
third  in  quantity  of  milk,  and  one-half  of  butter.  Thi-s 
cow  was  kept  till  20  years  old,  and  she  gave  6,278  pounds 
of  milk  during  her  nineteenth  year.  Both  of  these,  after 
development,  became  profitable  cows. 

A  circumstance  worthy  of  mention  is,  that  a  heifer  calf 
was  raised  from  each  of  these  cows  before  development,  and 


SPECIA.L   FEEDIN^G.  335 

both  proved  to  be  very  ordinary  milkers  ;  but  heifer  calves 
were  also  raised  from  each  of  them  after  development  that 
proved  to  be  excellent  milkers.  It  would  seem  that  a 
strong  milking  habit  acquired  by  each  of  these  cows  be- 
came transmissible  to  the  progeny.  They  also  illustrate 
another  point  of  some  importance — the  effect  of  high  feed- 
ing upon  the  health  and  future  usefulness  of  the  cow,  upon 
her  constitution  and  capacity  to  yield  milk  for  a  series  of 
years. 

It  has  often  been  asserted  that  high  feeding  shortens  the 
life  and  usefulness  of  the  cow.  These  two  cows  each  gave 
milk  in  very  profitable  quantities  for  fourteen  years  after 
high  feeding  commenced.  On  this  point  we  can  also  refer 
to  the  experiments  reported  by  Dr.  Rhode,  mentioned  on 
page  177,  in  which  some  35  cows  increased  a  yearly  average 
of  2,930  quarts  to  4,000  quarts,  in  seven  years,  with  the 
best  of  health.  What  is  called  high  feeding  is  often  very 
injudicious  feeding,  consisting  of  highly  concentrated  and 
heating  food,  given  without  due  admixture  of  coarse  or 
bulky  food.  But  these  cases  cannot  be  cited  against  full 
feeding  directed  by  a  proper  knowledge  of  the  wants  of  the 
animal  system. 

The  Geumais"  Experiments. 

The  effect  of  special  feed'ing  upon  the  quantity  of  milk 
has  been  so  often  proved  in  large  and  small  experiments 
that  there  is  no  further  doubt  about  it.  But  tlie  Grerman 
experiments  at  first  appeared  to  show  that  the  food  did  not 
change  the  proportion  of  the  chemical  constituents  of  milk; 
that  wlien  cows  were  fed  a  ration  of  meadow  hay,  and  in 
addition  a  highly  nitrogenous  food,  or  again  one  highly 
carbonaceous,  for  periods  of  14  days,  tlie  chemical  constitu- 
ents of  the  milk  remained  essentially  the  same.  Bat  Dr. 
Kiihn,  in  further  trials,  extending  through  a  period  of  30 
days,  found  the  element  of  oil  to  be  slightly  increased  on 


336  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

the  use  of  a  higbly  carbonaceous  food;  and  thus  it  was 
proved  that  special  feeding  might  change  the  proportion  of 
the  constituents  of  milk.  In  the  experiment  we  have 
given,  in  developing  the  two  cows  by  special  feeding,  an 
mcrease  in  the  element  of  butter,  in  the  same  cow,  of  about 
18  per  cent,  is  shown  after  long  feeding  ;  proving  that  the 
German  experiments  were  too  short  to  determine  the  effect 
of  special  feeding.  These  experiments  seem  to  have  been 
conducted  on  the  theory  that  the  constitution  of  the  cow 
is  exceedingly  flexible,  if  l-i  to  30  days  could  very  materi- 
ally change  the  proportion  of  the  secretions.  In  all  these 
experiments  the  ration  of  meadow  hay  furnished  all  the 
elements  of  milk  in  the  normal  proportions,  and  it  could 
not  reasonably  be  expected  that  additional  food,  rich  in 
either  albuminoids  or  carbo-hydrates,  could  change  the  pro- 
portion of  the  elements  in  milk,  except  in  a  long  course 
of  feeding.  A  steady  course  of  special  feeding  will  work  a 
gradual  but  sure  change.  In  confirmation  of  this,  let  us 
present  a  large  experiment,  carried  on  for  several  years,  and 
giving  most  conclusive  proof  of  the  increase  of  oil,  or  but- 
ter, in  the  milk.  The  Hon.  Zadock  Pratt,  of  Greene 
County,  N.  Y.,  reports  to  the  New  York  State  Agricultural 
Society,  the  yield  of  his  50  cows  for  five  consecutive  years, 
beginning  with  1857  and  including  1861.  The  first  year  it 
required  39.2  pounds  of  milk  for  1  pound  of  butter;  the 
second,  33.3  pounds;  the  third,  29  pounds;  the  fourth,  23.3 
pounds';  the  fifth,  21  pounds.  The  amount  of  butter  per 
cow  per  year  increased  in  the  same  proportion.  This  herd 
was  made  up  of  so-called  "  native  cows,"  and  consisted  sub- 
stantially of  the  same  animals,  there  being  only  the  ordi- 
nary changes  in  such  a  herd.  In  1862  he  reports  64  cows, 
many  of  them  heifers,  yet  requiring  only  19. 7  pounds  of  milk 
for  1  pound  of  butter;  his  average  of  butter  per  cow  reach- 
ing 223  pounds.  The  next  year,  with  82  cows,  he  reached 
an  average  of  224  pounds  of  butter  per  cow.     He  was  con- 


SPECIAL  FEEDING.  337 

stantly  improving  his  yield  of  butter  by  special  feeding ; 
and,  contrary  to  the  German  experiments,  this  increase  in 
butter  was  not  from  an  increased  yield  of  milk,  but  from 
an  improved  quality.  His  improved  quality  resulted  from 
feeding  through  the  winter,  and  till  the  tenth  of  May  (when 
grass  became  good),  a  ration  of  corn,  oats  and  buckwheat, 
ground  together;  and  from  May  tenth  grass  alone  till  the 
latter  part  of  August,  when  fodder,  corn  and  pumpkins 
were  given  in  addition  to  grass  during  the  fall  and  early 
winter.  His  constant  improvement  of  the  quality  of  the 
milk,  year  by  year,  was  just  what  might,  philosophically, 
have  been  expected.  And  as  the  yield  of  milk,  per  cow, 
was  no  greater  at  the  end  of  seven  years  than  at  the  begin- 
ning (5,094  pounds  in  1857  and  5,017  pounds  in  1863),  this 
must  be  regarded  as  a  demonstration  that  this  special  feed- 
ing affected,  radically,  the  quality  of  the  milk. 

We  have  illustrated  this  point  of  special  feeding  at  con- 
siderable length,  because  many  intelligent  feeders  have 
been  discouraged  from  any  attempt  at  improvement  in  the 
quality  of  the  milk  of  common  cows  by  supposing  that 
science  had  proved  its  futility.  The  common  understand- 
ing of  all  good  feeders,  that  cows  may  be  improved,  both 
in  quantity  and  quality,  by  intelligent  feeding  to  that  end, 
has  not  been  weakened  by  any  just  interpretation  of  any 
experiments,  scientific  or  otherwise. 

Having  considered  the  selection  and  size  of  dairy  cows, 
the  effect  of  temperature  and  exercise,  special  feeding,  and 
the  German  experiments  on  the  effect  of  feeding  upon  the 
quality  of  milk,  we  are  now  ready  to  consider  practical 
modes  of  feeding  for  milk. 

The  dairy  industry  is  so  extensive  in  this  country — in- 
volving one  of  the  largest  agricultural  products — that  the 
most  careful  consideration  of  it  is  required. 
15 


338  feeding  animals. 

The  Cow  as  a  Food  Producer. 

The  large  eating  capacity  of  a  good  diiiry  cow  is  proverb- 
ial; which  will  be  easily  understood  if  we  make  a  cursory 
examination  of  her  production.  Suppose  a  cow  weigh- 
ing 900  lbs.  yields  6,000  lbs.  of  milk  in  nine  or  ten  months. 
This  milk  would  contain  780  lbs.  of  dry  matter,  counting  it 
87  per  cent,  water.  Here  she  yields  G;:j  times  her  own 
weight  in  milk,  and  the  dry  substance  in  the  milk  is  twice 
that  in  her  own  body.  The  cow  is  the  most  remarkable 
food  producer  among  animals.  She  produces  twice  as 
much  food  in  her  milk  as  does  the  beef  animal  of  the  same 
weight  in  its  gain  in  flesh,  during  the  same  time.  It  seems 
that  this  remarkable  economy  of  production  in  the  cow 
was  observed  and  discussed  by  Payen,  in  1843,  whilst  asso- 
ciated with  Dumas  and  Boussingault,  in  ^'Eesearches  on 
the  Fattening  of  Cattle  and  the  Formation  of  Milk." 
These  observations  were  published  in  Les  Coniptes  Hendtis, 
Feb.  13,  1843.     After  giving  experiments  he  says: 

"The  cow  which  has  consumed  10  kilogrammes  (22  lbs.) 
of  hay  above  the  ration  of  support,  yields  10  litres  (22.0 
lbs.)  of  milk,  which  represents  one  kilogramme  400 
grammes  of  solid  matter;  while  the  ox  has  increased  only 
one  kilogramme  with  the  same  food,  and  of  this  the  water 
absorbed  into  the  tissues  of  the  animal  ought  certainly  to 
be  counted  as  the  half.  *  *  tj^  milch  cow,  then, 
draws  to  the  profit  of  man,  from  the  same  pasture,  a  quan- 
tity of  matter  for  the  food  of  man  which  may  be  more 
than  double  that  extracted  from  it  by  a  fattening  ox. 
*  *  *  There  exists  the  most  perfect  analogy  between 
the  production  of  milk  and  the  fattening  of  animals,  as 
the  rearers  of  stock  had  anticipated.  But,  nevertheless, 
the  fattening  ox  turns  to  use  less  of  the  fatty  matter,  or 
azotized  substances,  than  the  milch  cow.  And  this  last 
merits,  in  an   economical   point   of  view,  the  preference. 


THE  COW  AS  A  FOOD  PRODUCER.         339 

when   the   question   is  to  get  from   pasture  the  greatest 
amount  of  product  useful  to  man." 

This  gives  us  a  clear  explanation  of  the  reason  for  the 
large  consumption  of  food  by  the  best  milch  cows.  As 
the  milk  is  made  from  the  extra  food  consumed  by  the  cow 
over  what  is  necessary  to  supply  the  waste  of  her  ovm  sys- 
tem, we  see  it  is  quite  necessary  that  she  should  be  a  good 
eater  and  digester. 

COMPOSITIOX  OF  THE  6,000  LBS.    OF  MlLK. 

Dry  Substance.  Lbs. 

Casein  and  albumen 234 

Fat,  or  butter 228 

Milk-sugar  (whey) 278. 4 

Salts,  or  ash 39.6 

Total  dry  substance 7S0.0 

Water 5,220 

This  statement  of  the  elements  of  the  dry  substance  in 
the  6,000  lbs.  of  milk  yielded  by  a  cow  in  her  milking 
period,  shows  that  the  food  should  be  rich  in  albuminoids 
and  fat,  or  the  elements  out  of  which  fat  is  elaborated,  in 
the  animal  system. 

How  Fat  is  Produced. 

Animal  chemists  and  physiologists  are  not  agreed  upon 
this  question  of  the  formation  of  fat  in  the  animal  body. 
Some  quite  elaborate  experiments  made  by  Voit,  Petten- 
kofer,  Henneberg,  Wolff,  and  some  other  German  experi- 
menters, led  them  to  believe  that  the  albuminoid  matter 
eateu  as  food  was  a  large  source  of  the  fat  laid  up  in  the 
animal  system,  and  that  this  and  the  oil  in  the  food  eaten 
constituted  the  sources  from  which  all  the  fat  in  animals 
is  produced.  Almost  all  kinds  of  fodder  contains  fat,  but 
not  in  quantity  sufficient  to  account  for  all  the  fat  laid  up 
by  the  fattening  animal  or  the  fat  in  the  milk  of  the  cow. 
The  urea  constantly  extracted  from  the  blood  by  the  kid- 
neys comes  from  the  albuminoid  matter.     The  extraction 


340  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

of  urea  leaves  a  kind  of  fatty  matter,  as  the  residue  of  the 
albuminoids,  and  this  is  used  to  keep  up  animal  heat,  and 
the  surplus  goes  to  lay  on  fat  or  produce  oil  in  milk. 
These  chemists  were  inclined  to  doubt  whether  carbo- 
hydrates, such  as  starch,  sugar,  gum,  and  cellulose,  were 
ever  used  in  the  animal  system  to  produce  fat,  as  Leibig 
had  held  many  years  before ;  but  their  experiments  were 
far  from  being  conclusive,  as  they  had  omitted  to  experi- 
ment upon  the  pig.  Lawes  and  Gilbert  carried  out  a  thor- 
ough series  of  experiments  upon  pigs,  that  fully  corrobo- 
rated Liebig's  views,  and  proved  quite  decisively  that 
carbo-hydrates  were  transformed  into  fat.  The  pigs  were 
fed  upon  barley-meal,  and  the  fat  and  albuminoid  matter 
in  the  barley-meal  were  wholly  insufficient  to  account  for 
the  fat  formed  in  the  bodies.  It  has  been  stated  that 
these  German  chemists  have  recently  acknowledged  the 
correctness  of  the  experiments  of  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  and 
that  carbo-hydrates  must  be  considered  as  a  source  of 
fat  in  animal  bodies.  In  this  they  acknowledge  the  far- 
sightedness of  their  great  predecessor,  Leibig,  whose  mind 
seemed  to  grasp  great  truths  intuitively,  and  who  was 
much  less  liable  to  error  than  those  who  draw  general 
conclusions  from  limited  practical  experiments. 

The  practical  common  sense  of  feeders  has  taught  them 
that  foods  having  a  large  proportion  of  starch,  such  as 
corn-meal,  barley-meal,  rye-meal,  and  fine  middlings  from 
wheat,  are  particularly  adapted  to  produce  fat,  or  milk 
rich  in  butter.  And  these  impressions,  derived  from  gen- 
eral practice,  have  withstood  all  the  doubts  of  scientific 
investigators  based  upon  inadequate  experiments. 

A^ARiETY  OF  Food  for  Milk. 

We  have  seen  that  milk  is  a  very  complex  fluid,  contain- 
ing all  the  component  elements  of  the  animal  body.  The 
food,  therefore,  to  produce  it,  should  be  rich  in  all  these 


VARIETY    OF    FOOD    FOR   MILK.  341 

elements.  The  error  too  frequently  committed  by  dairy- 
men IS,  in  supplying  a  ration  from  one  kind  of  fodder,  in- 
stead of  giving  a  variety.  If  the  hay  be  cut  from  an  old 
meadow  it  will  have  a  variety  of  grasses,  and  the  wants  of 
the  system  will  be  fully  supplied.  There  are  very  few  old 
meadows  that  contain  less  than  twelve  to  fifteen  species 
of  grass.  Old  pastures  often  contain  three  to  four  times 
that  number  of  grasses.  It  is  from  this  fact  that  butter 
has  a  higher  flavor  when  produced  from  old  pastures. 
When  milk  is  produced  wholly  from  red  clover,  one  of  our 
best  artificial  grasses,  its  flavor  is  quite  inferior  to  that  pro- 
duced from  several  varieties.  This  has  been  so  often  ob- 
served as  not  to  admit  of  a  doubt.  Each  species  of  grass 
or  grain  has  its  own  peculiar  aroma  and  flavor,  and  the 
greater  the  number  of  varieties  the  finer  the  flavor  of  the 
milk,  butter,  or  other  product.  Every  dairyman  should 
therefore  study  the  nature  of  the  foods  he  nses,  that  he 
may  produce  the  best  result.  The  unfavorable  opinion  ex- 
pressed by  some  dairymen  of  fodder-corn,  fed  green,  has 
been  from  not  understanding  that  this  is  only  a  partial 
food,  and  not  adapted  to  be  used  as  a  complete  ration.  It 
is  very  deficient  in  albuminoids,  which  are  found  in  so 
large  proportion  in  milk.  Green  corn  is  excellent  as  part 
of  a  ration  for  milk  cows,  but  it  should  always  be  given 
with  more  nitrogenous  food,  such  as  clover,  oats  and  peas, 
millet,  malt  sprouts,  oil-cake,  bran  or  middlings.  There 
must  always  'be  a  variety  of  food  in  the  milk  ration,  and 
with  a  little  study  of  his  resources  the  dairyman  may 
always  give  such  variety. 

English  Practice. 

Let  us  examine  the  system  of  feeding  adopted  with 
success  by  Prof.  Horsfiill,  of  England,  some  twenty  years 
ago,  and  carried  out  for  many  years.  We  may  not  be  able 
to  use  the  exact  foods  in  his  ration,  but  American  dairy- 


342  FEEDING   AXIMALS. 

men  may  use  those  of  the  same  chemical  elements.  He 
mentions,  by  way  of  preface,  that  it  requires  20  lbs.  of  good 
meadow  hay,  besides  the  food  of  support,  to  produce  16 
quarts  (40  lbs.,  English  measure)  of  milk  per  day.  But 
you  cannot  induce  a  cow  to  consume  this  amount  of  hay 
above  tlie  ration  for  her  maintenance,  and  he  had  therefore 
to  seek  his  extra  food  in  more  concentrated  substances, 
such  as  are  rich  in  albumen,  oil,  and  phosphoric  acid;  and 
he  selected  these  with  reference  to  economy  of  cost.  His 
stables  in  winter  were  kept  at  a  temperature  of  60°. 

In  describing  his  ration,  he  says: 

"  My  food  for  milch  cows,  after  having  undergone  various 
modifications,  has  for  two  seasons  consisted  of  rape  cake, 
5  lbs.;  and  bran,  2  lbs.;  for  each  cow,  mixed  with  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  bean-straw,  oat-straw,  and  shells  of  oats, 
in  equal  proportions,  to  supply  them  three  times  a  day 
with  all  they  will  eat.  The  whole  of  the  materials  are 
moistened  and  blended  together,  and  after  being  well 
steamed  are  given  to  cows,  in  a  warm  state.  The  cows 
are  also  allowed  from  1  lb.  to  2  lbs.  of  bean-meal  per  day, 
according  to  the  quantity  of  milk  given  by  each.  This 
bean-meal  is  given  dry,  mixed  with  the  steamed  food  as 
given  to  each  cow.  When  this  is  eaten  up,  green  food 
is  given,  consisting  of  cabbages,  from  October  to  Decem- 
ber; kohl-rabi,  till  February;  and  mangolds  till  grass- 
time.  To  preserve  a  nice  flavor,  I  limit  the  supply  of  green 
food  to  30  or  35  lbs.  per  day  to  each  ;  after  each  feed  four 
lbs.  of  meadow  hay,  or  12  lbs.  per  day  is  given  to  each 
cow;  they  are  allowed  all  they  will  drink  of  water  twice 
per  day. 

*'My  experience  of  the  benefits  of  steaming  is  such,  that 
if  I  were  deprived  of  it  I  could  not  continue  to  feed  with 
satisfaction.  As  I  mix  bean-straw,  bran,  and  malt-combs, 
as  flavoring  materials,  with  oat-straw  and  rape-cake,  the 
effect  of  steaming  is  to  volatilize  the  essential  oils,  in  which 


PROF.    HORSFALL'S   RATION".  343 

the  flavor  resides,  and  diffuse  them  through  the  mess. 
The  odor  arising  from  it  resembles  that  observed  from  the 
process  of  malting.  It  imparts  a  relish  which  induces  the 
cow  to  eat  it  greedily  ;  besides  which,  I  think,  it  renders  the 
food  more  easy  of  digestion  and  assimilation.  I  use  this 
process  with  advantage  for  fattening  when  I  am  short  of 
roots,  adding  one-half  pound  of  linseed  oil.  With  this 
ration,  cooked,  I  have  been  able  to  make  an  average  gain 
of  14  lbs.  per  week  on  heifers  and  dry  cows,  from  March  to 
May — a  result  I  could  not  accomplish  from  the  same 
materials  uncooked. 

''  To  one  leading  feature  of  my  practice  I  attach  the 
greatest  importance — the  maintenance  of  the  condition  of 
mij  cows  giving  a  large  yield  of  milk.  I  am  enabled,  by  the 
addition  of  bean-meal  in  proportion  to  the  greater  yield 
of  milk,  to  avert  the  loss  of  condition  in  those  giving  from 
IG  to  18  quarts  per  day  ;  whilst  on  those  giving  a  less 
yield,  and  in  health,  I  invariably  effect  an  improvement. 
Albuminous  matter  is  the  most  essential  element  in  the 
food  of  the  milch  cow,  and  any  deficiency  in  the  supply  of 
this  will  be  attended  with  loss  of  condition  and  a  conse- 
quent deterioration  in  the  quality  of  her  milk." 

The  ensilage  system  lately  introduced  will,  when  put  in 
practice,  quite  supersede  the  necessity  of  steaming,  and 
give  cows  nearly  all  the  advantages  of  pasture.  It  will 
also  fully  take  the  place  of  roots  in  the  English  system. 

Fatten  Cows  in  Milk. 

There  are  some  features  in  Mr.  Horsfall's  practice  worthy 
of  careful  consideration  of  American  dairymen.  He  was 
in  the  habit  of  buying  strippers,  or  cows  some  six  months 
from  calving,  putting  these  into  his  herd  and  making  ;i 
good  profit  on  them  This  would  generally  be  considered 
a  very  unwise  thing  for  a  dairyman  to  do.  But  this  fact 
shows  that  Mr.  Horsfall  had  such  complete  control  of  the 


344 


FEEDING    ANIMALS. 


condition  of  his  cows  that  he  could  take  these  strippers 
(which  he  was  careful  to  have  under  six  years  old),  and  so 
increase  their  yield  of  milk  as  to  produce  a  fair  profit  upon 
this  alone;  and  also  so  increase  the  weiglit  and  value 
of  the  carcass  in  six  to  ten  months  as  t.o  sell  them  50  per 
cent,  above  the  purchase  price.  A  system  that  could  pro- 
duce milk  profitably  while  fattening  the  cow,  must  have 
some  merits  worthy  of  adoption.  He  gives  the  key  to  his 
*'  leadmg  feature"  of  practice,  as  "  the  maintenance  of  the 
condition  of  the  cow  under  a  large  yield  of  milk."  This 
he  does  by  giving  a  portion  of  food  rich  in  albuminoids. 
Milk  being  a  highly  albuminous  product,  it  draws  strongly 
upon  these  elements  in  food.  If  we  take  his  example  of 
feeding  six  cows  191  days — examine  his  ration,  weight  of 
his  cows  at  beginning  and  end  of  experiment,  product 
of  milk,  etc. — it  will  give  the  best  insight  into  his 
practice. 


No.  OF  Cow. 


1 

2 

4 

H 

7 

11 

Average  of  all 


July  28 
Aug.  25 
July  28 
Sept.  8 
Sept.  8 
Aug.  25 


u 

2 

X5 

o 

>> 

o 

II 

1^ 

lbs. 

lbs. 

30% 

1,064 

i^% 

1,120 

46% 

952 

41 

1,176 

41 

1,176 

41 

1,036 

41K 

l,087>i 

^X3 


lbs. 

1,148 
1,260 
1,120 
1,204 
1,232 
1,064 


1,171^8' 


lbs. 

25fi; 

41 

383^ 
38^1^ 
38^ 


351 


days,  lbs 
203—5.202 
18!)— 7,749 
2ir-^,.354 
175—6,725 
175—5.833 
189—6,6.52 


191—6,752 


lbs. 
84 
140 
168 
28 
56 
28 

84 


VALUE  OF  COW  MAKTJRE.  345 

Food  Supply  to  Six  Cows  During  191  Days,  and  its  Composition. 


5 

Si 

a 

0 
5 

>> 

fe 

1 

0 

■3 

f 

p. 
0 

3 
0 

1^ 

fi 
t 

^ 

i 

5-1 

0 

^ 

< 

W 

C 

fo 

< 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Meadow  hay.. 

56 

10,696 

$17.76 

$84.90 

9,420 

990 

4.2.57 

287 

2,933 

953 

Rape  cake    . . . 

30 

5.740 

28.80 

73.67 

5,4,-)6 

1,803 

2,177 

611 

494 

171 

Malt  corab3, . 

9 

\.rii 

24.20 

18.46 

1,660 

411 

791 

51 

320 

88 

Bran  .     

9 

1.7-22 

28.86 

22.20 

1,.500 

246 

800 

96 

258 

100 

Bean  meal     . 

9 

1,72a 

41.48 

31.90 

1,500 

464 

774 

34 

176 

53 

Roots  and  cab 

bages   

204 

:i?).032 

e  22 

38.88 

5,740 

862 

3,074 

115 

1,448 

541 

Oat  straw 

50 

9.56(i 

7.77 

33.08 

8,407 

2S7 

3,066 

100 

4,526 

428 

Bean  straw.. 

12 

2.296 

7.77 

8.00 

1.964 

376 

725 

51 

594 

217 

Total    

379 

72,496 

$311  09 

35,647 

5,439 

15.664 

1,345 

15,664 

2,551 

Here  the  cost  of  the  food  was  ^311.09,  or  27  cts.  per  day 
for  each  cow — a  pretty  large  price  for  keeping — but  the 
milk  (16,000  quarts),  at  two  pence  (3.7  cts.)  per  quart, 
amounted  to  $592,  leaving  the  handsome  margin  of  $281, 
or  $46.83  per  cow.  We  may  consider  this  a  pretty  high 
price  for  milk,  but  it  is  only  equal  to  $1.44  per  100  lbs. — a 
price  dairymen  often  reached  at  cheese  factories  with  high 
prices. 

Value  of  Cow  Manure. 

But  one  important  consideration  of  profit  which  an 
English  farmer  never  forgets,  but  which  an  American 
farmer  often  leaves  out  of  his  estimate  of  profit,  is  the 
manure.  Mr.  Horsfall  sent  to  the  laboratory  of  Prof.  Way 
samples  of  the  manure  from  these  six  cows,  Avliile  the 
experiment  was  going  on,  for  analysis.  According  to  his 
analysis  of  several  samples,  these  cows  produced,  during 
191  days,  the  following  amounts  : 

Pounds.  cts.  Value. 

Nitrogen 414 @20 $  82.80 

Phosphoric  acid 393 12 47.16 

Potash 585 8 46.80 


Total  value,  at  commercial  prices 8176.76 


346  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

This  IS  equal  to  $29.49  per  cow,  and  the  estimate  of 
value  is  that  made  for  commercial  fertilizers  in  our  own 
markets.  The  experiment  was  conducted  some  twenty 
years  ago,  and  Mr.  Horsfall  then  figured  the  value  at 
$17.28  per  cow.  We  have  figured  it  on  the  basis  of  prices 
laid  down  by  Prof.  S.  W.  Johnson,  of  the  Connecticut 
Experiment  Station.  It  Avill  be  well  for  our  farmers  to 
look  after  the  value  of  the  home-made  fertilizer;  and  as 
the  experiment  was  carried  out  with  care,  we  give  it  as 
forming  a  basis  of  calculation  of  manurial  value  when 
cows  are  full-fed,  so  as  to  gain  in  weight.  Had  they  been 
scantily  fed,  the  manure  would  liave  been  of  much  less 
value.  Here  was  abundance  of  food  for  respiration,  or  the 
production  of  animal  heat,  to  supply  the  natural  waste 
of  the  animal  body,  to  produce  an  average  of  35  lbs.  of 
milk  per  day,  and,  besides,  to  increase  the  weight  of  the 
cow  84  lbs.  in  27K  weeks.  These  six  cows  w^ere  fresh  in 
milk,  to  show  the  effect  of  full  feeding  with  full  produc- 
tion; for  it  is  much  easier  to  add  to  the  weight  of  the  cow 
after  she  has  been  in  milk  six  months  than  while  in  flush 
of  production.  This  case  will  show  clearly  how  he  could 
buy  strippers  and  greatly  increase  their  yield  of  milk, 
while  he  added  about  8  to  10  lbs.  to  their  weignt  per  week. 
As  we  have  strongly  illustrated  in  previous  pages  that  there 
can  be  no  production  until  after  the  food  of  support,  and 
that  the  highest  profit  is  only  reached  by  the  highest  con- 
sumption of  food,  this  practice  of  Prof.  Horsfall  is  a 
valuable  addition  to  evidence  under  that  head. 

Food  of  ProdiTction. 

As  the  author's  great  object  in  writing  this  book  is  to 
give  practical  instruction  that  will  assist  the  feeder,  in  any 
specialty,  to  increase  his  profits,  let  us,  before  leaving  Mr. 
Horsfall's  experiments,  show  how  these  illustrate  the  pro- 
portion of  the  food  of  production  to  that  of  support.  This 
is  the  most  important  point  of  all  to  be  understood  by  the 


FOOD   OF  PRODUCTIOK.  347 

feeder;  that  is,  ivliat  part  of  a  full  ration  is  really  used  for 
production  or  profit?  We  greatly  need  accurate  and 
thorough  experiments  to  determine  this  to  an  approximate 
fraction.  There  are  many  cases  that  throw  light  upon  it. 
The  German  experimenters  have  undertaken  to  lay  down 
the  rule  that  2  per  cent,  of  the  live  weight  of  cattle  of  the 
dry  substance  of  meadow  hay  is  required  as  a  daily  ration 
of  support,  without  gain.  If  this  rule  is  taken,  then,  as 
Mr.  Horsfall's  six  cows  averaged  1,078  lbs.,  it  would  require 
21.74  lbs.  of  dry  substance  for  the  food  of  support.  The 
averaged  amount  of  dry  substance  eaten  by  each  cow  per 
day  was  31.11  lbs.,  as  appears  by  the  table  given  on  a  pre- 
vious  page.  This  would  be  nearly  .7  (seven-tenths)  required 
as  the  food  of  support,  and  a  little  over  .3  (three-tenths)  as 
the  food  of  production;  and  yet  these  cows  yielded  35  lbs. 
of  milk  per  day,  besides  increasing  in  weight.  This  must 
be  considered  as  a  remarkable  result.  We  have  usually 
estimated  two-thirds  of  a  full  ration  as  required  for  the 
food  of  support,  and  this  rather  more  than  sustains  that 
estimate.  Let  us  see  if  we  can  find  the  elements  in  %  of 
the  ration  given  by  Mr.  Ilorsfall  to  produce  the  35  lbs. 
of  milk,  or  40,512  lbs.  in  191  days,  besides  a  gain  in  the 
weight  of  the  cows  of  500  lbs.  Mr.  H.  supposed  that  this 
gam  in  weight  was  composed  of  300  lbs.  of  fat  and  200  lbs. 
of  lean  flesh.  This  would  give  only  4G  lbs.  of  dry  flesh,  or 
fibrin,  aud  about  270  lbs.  of  solid  fat.  The  40,512  lbs.  of 
milk  would  contain  the  following  siil)stances: 

Casein  (albuminoid) 1 ,815  lbs. 

Fat  or  butter 1,276    " 

Milk  sugar 1,933    " 

Mineral  matter  (ash) 248    ' ' 

Water,  87  per  cent 85,24«J    " 

40,512 

If    we  add   the  fat  and  fibrin  of  500  lbs.  gain,  it  will 
stand — 

Casein  and  fibrin 1,861  lbs. 

Fat  and  butter 1,446    " 

Milk  sugar 1,932    " 


348  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

One-third  oi  the  elements  of  the  food  is — 

Albuminoid  (^  of   5,439  lbs.) 1,813  lbs. 

Oil  Oi  of    l,34o  lbs.) 442    " 

Starch  (H  of  15,604  lbs.) 5,221    " 

Here  it  will  be  seen  that  the  oil  in  the  food  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  supply  the  fat  for  the  butter,  and  the  increase  in 
weight,  even  if  none  is  consumed  in  the  maintenance  of 
the  cow,  as  there  is  only  1,345  lbs.  of  fat  m  the  whole  food, 
and  there  is  required,  besides,  maintenance,  1,446  for  the 
milk  and  the  gain  m  weight.  This  only  shows  tliat  the 
oil  contained  in  food  is  not  sufficient  to  supply  the  necessi- 
ties of  the  animal,  and  that  it  must  be  derived  from  tlie 
carbo-hydrates  of  the  food.  The  surplus  starch  over  main- 
tenance amounts  to  5,221  lbs. ;  and  if  we  deduct  the  milk 
sugar,  1,932  lbs.,  from  this,  we  shall  have  left  3.289  lbs. 
If  we  deduct  the  442  lbs.  of  fat  over  the  maintenance 
ration  from  the  1,446  lbs.  of  fat  in  the  butter,  and  gain 
of  the  cows,  it  leaves  a  deficiency  of  1,004  lbs.,  and  if  we 
estimate  2H  lbs.  of  starch  as  equal  to  1  lb.  of  fat,  it  will  take 
2,510  lbs.  of  starch  to  produce  this  deficiency  of  fat;  but 
this  still  leaves  a  surplus  of  779  lbs.  of  starch,  so  that  the 
production  of  fat  can  be  accounted  for  out  of  one-third 
of  the  food.  The  casein  in  one-third  of  the  food,  48  lbs., 
is  short  of  supplying  the  casein  m  the  milk  and  fibrin  in 
the  increase  of  weight  in  the  cows.  But  it  may  well  be 
that  the  nitrogen  in  two-thirds  of  the  food  is  more  than 
the  waste  of  the  system  requires,  and  the  deficiency  is  but 
a  trifle  (8  lbs.)  to  each  cow.  It  thus  appears,  on  a  careful 
examination,  that  one-third  of  a  full  ration  is  quite  suffi- 
cient to  furnish  the  elements  in  a  large  yield  of  milk-  This 
ought  to  be  an  interesting  illustration  to  all  dairymen. 
These  cows  were  fed  very  liberally,  and  produced  a  little 
over  35  lbs.  of  milk  per  day  for  191  days,  besides  gaining 
in  weight,  and  still  two- thirds  of  the  food  was  used  as  the 
mere  ration  of  support — one-third   only  devoted  to  pro- 


RATIONS   FOR   MILK.  349 

duction.  This  experiment  was  made  by  Prof.  Horsfall, 
before  the  German  experiments,  determining  the  precise 
digestible  constituents  of  food.  Under  the  German 
formula,  the  amounts  of  albuminoids,  carbo-hydrates,  and 
oil  represented  as  digestible  would  be  considerably  less, 
but  the  result  would  be  the  same.  If  dairymen  once 
become  fully  convinced  of  the  fact  that  tiuo  parts  of  all 
food  goes  to  keep  the  cow  alive,  and  only  one  part  to  pro- 
duction and  profit,  it  must  soon  change  the  habit  of 
scanty  feeding,  which  means  feeding  without  any  hope  of 
profit. 

American  Kations  for  Milk. 

Our  dairymen  have  a  great  variety  of  foods  out  of  which 
to  make  up  the  milk  ration.  It  is  true  that  we  cannot  get 
bean- meal  or  rape-cake,  two  of  the  foods  used  by  Prof. 
Horsfall — the  former  of  which  had  a  peculiar  significance 
in  his  system  of  feeding,  as  he  regarded  it  as  an  important 
agent  in  keeping  up  the  condition  of  the  cow  under  a  large 
flow  of  milk,  by  its  large  percentage  of  muscle-forming 
matter — but  we  can  replace  this  with  decorticated  cotton- 
seed meal,  which  is  still  richer  than  bean-meal  in.albu- 
minoid  matter,  besides  having  six  times  as  much  oil ;  or 
its  place  can  be  filled  (in  some  parts  of  the  country)  with 
pea-meal,  a  food  very  similar,  or  it  may  be  replaced  with 
linseed  oil-cake.  We  have  not  yet  become  accustomed  to 
raising  roots  or  cabbages  for  cattle  feeding  to  any  extent, 
and  it  may  be  doubted,  whether,  with  our  rates  of  labor, 
we  can  aff'ord  to  raise  turnips,  beets,  etc.,  instead  of  the 
grain  crops.  Many  close  figures  make  the  raising  of  an 
acre  of  Indian  corn,  oats  and  peas,  millet  or  barley,  cheaper 
than  the  same  quantity  of  nutriment  from  roots.  The 
effect  of  roots  in  the  promotion  of  the  health  of  the  cow, 
by  their  cooling  and  relaxing  effect  upon  the  stomach  and 
bowels,  is  often  dwelt  upon,  and  with  good  reason;   but 


350  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

the  same  effects  may  be  produced  by  the  use  of  2  to  4 
lbs.  of  oil-cake  in  combination  with  bran,  or  oats  and  corn 
ground  together,  and  good  hay. 

And  the  American  dairyman  now  has,  or  may  easily 
have,  green  succulent  food,  in  the  form  of  ensilage,  to 
produce  all  this  beneficial  effect  upon  the  stomach  and 
digestive  organs. 

A  ration  of  equal  nutritive  power  with  Prof.  Horsfall's 
can  be  found  here,  at  less  cost.     Take  the  following: 

Cost 

10  lbs.  Clover-hay 4.0  cents. 

10     "Straw 2.0  " 

4     "    Linseed-oilcake '. .  6.0  " 

4     "    Wheat  bran 3.0  " 

2    "    Cotton-seedcake 2.5  " 

4    "    Corn-meal 3.0  " 

Average  value  of  ration 20.5  cents. 

This  ration  is  fully  equal  to  Mr.  Horsfall's,  and  yet  costs 
only  three-fourths  as  much,  or  the  following : 

Cost. 

16  lbs.  Meadow  hay 6.4  cents. 

8     "    Wheat  bran 6.0      " 

2  "    Linseed-nieal 3.0      " 

6    "    Corn-meal 5.0     " 

20.4  cents. 

Or  this : 

Cost. 

18  lbs.  Corn-fodder 4.5  cents. 

8    "    Wheat  bran 6.0      " 

4    *'    Cotton-seed  meal 5.0      " 

4  "    Corn-meal 3.0     *' 

18.5  cents. 

Or  this: 

Cost 

15  lbs.  Straw 3.0  cents. 

5  "    Hay 2.0  " 

4    "    Cotton-seed  meal 5.0  " 

4     '«    Bran 3.0  " 

4    "    Corn-meal 3.0  " 

3  "    Malt  sprouts = 2.0  " 

18.0  cents. 


RATtOKS   FOB  MILK.  *       351 

The  following  would  be  easily  obtained  in  many  districts: 

Cost. 

10  lbs.  Corn-fodder 2.0  cents. 

10    "    Oat  straw 2.0      " 

2    "    Linseed-meal 3.0      " 

4  "    Malt  sprouts 2.0      " 

10    "    Oat  and  corn-meal 10.0      " 

19.0  cents. 

Or  this  : 

Cost 
60  lbs.  Corn  ensilage 7K  cents. 

5  '•    Hay 2J4      " 

2    "    Linseed-meal 2)4      " 

4    "    Bran 3.0     " 

153^  cents. 

Or  this : 

Cost. 

60  lbs.  Clover  ensilage 9.0  cents. 

4    "    Coru-raeal 4.0      " 

13.0  cents. 

Or  this: 

Cost. 

40  lbs.  Corn'  ensilage 5.0  cents. 

40     "    Clover     "        6.0      " 

4    "    Bmn 3.0      " 

14.0  cents. 

Or  this: 

Cost. 

40  lbs.  Corn  ensilage 5.0  cents. 

40    "    Clover     " 6.0      " 

40    "    Millet      "        0.0      " 

17.0  cents. 

Any  of  these  rations  would  produce  a  large  flow  of  milk 
and  fully  keep  up  the  condition  of  the  cow,  adding  to  her 
weight,  if  her  live  weight  were  not  over  1,000  lbs.  In 
many  parts  of  the  West  the  fifth  ration  would  not  cost 
more  than  ten  cents  per  day.  All  these  rations  would  also 
produce  a  good  quality  of  butter  in  winter.  The  ensilage 
rations  are  the  cheapest  and  would  produce  the  largest 
flow  of  milk. 


352  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

Water  for  Milch   Cows. 

All  dairymen  have  observed  that  cows  require  a  very 
large  amount  of  water  whilst  in  full  milk.  Prof.  Horsfall 
made  a  comioarison  as  to  the  water  drunk  by  fattening 
cattle  and  milch  cows  of  the  same  weight.  He  found  that 
cows,  when  giving  only  20  lbs.  of  milk  per  day,  drank  40 
lbs.  of  water  more  than  fattening  cattle  of  the  same  weight, 
and  he  inferred  from  this  that  the  cows  gave  off  from  the 
lungs  and  the  pores  of  the  skin  over  20  lbs.  of  water  per 
day  more  than  fattening  cattle  of  the  same  weight,  since 
the  water  contained  in  the  milk  yielded  was  only  about 
17M  lbs.,  whilst  the  cow  consumed  40  lbs.  of  extra  water. 
On  examining  the  manure  from  co-ws  and  fattening  cattle, 
he  found  the  amount  of  moisture  the  same  in  both  cases. 
This  is  an  interesting  comparative  experiment  of  the 
capacity  for  water  drinking  in  the  fattening  animal  and 
milch  cow,  whether  we  accept  the  theory  of  its  use  or  not. 
The  experiments  have  not  been  numerous  and  exact  enough 
to  determine  the  precise  method  of  the  expenditure  of  all 
the  water  ;  but  the  large  capacity  and  necessity  for  water 
in  the  milch  cow  is  abundantly  proved ;  yet  it  may  be 
worth  while  to  mention  the  experiments  of  M.  Dancel, 
reported  to  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences.  His  experi- 
ments were  to  determine  the  effect  of  quantity  of  water 
upon  quantity  and  quality  of  milk.  He  says  that  by  in- 
ducing cows  to  drink  more  water,  the  quantity  of  milk 
yielded  by  them  can  be  increased  m  j^roportion  up  to  many 
quarts  per  day,  without  perceptibly  injuring  its  quality. 
The  amount  of  milk,  he  states,  is  proportional  to  the 
quantity  of  water  drunk.  In  experimenting  upon  cows 
fed  in  stall  with  dry  fodder  that  gave  only  9  to  12  quarts 
of  milk  per  day,  but  when  this  dry  food  was  moistened 
with  from  18  to  23  quarts  of  water  daily,  their  yield  was 
then  from  12  to  14  quarts  of  milk  per  day.    Besides  this 


WATER   FOR   COWS.  353 

water  taken  with  the  food,  the  cows  were  allowed  to  drink 
the  same  as  before,  and  their  thirst  was  excited  by  adding 
a  little  salt  to  the  fodder.  The  milk  produced  under  this 
additional  amount  of  water,  on  analysis,  was  pronounced 
of  good  quality  ;  and  when  tested  for  butter,  was  found 
satisfactory.  A  definite  amount  of  water  could  not  be 
fixed  upon  for  each  cow,  since  the  appetite  for  drink  difiers 
widely  in  diff"erent  animals.  He  found,  by  a  series  of 
observations,  that  the  quantity  of  water  habitually  drunk 
by  each  cow  during  twenty-four  hours  was  a  criterion  to 
judge  of  the  quantity  of  milk  that  she  would  yield  per  day. 
And  a  cow  that  does  not  habitually  drink  as  much  as  27 
quarts  of  water  daily  must  be  a  poor  milker — giving  only 
from  5K  to  7  quarts  per  day.  But  all  the  cows  which  con- 
sumed as  much  as  50  quarts  of  water  daily  were  excellent 
milkers — giving  from  18  to  23  quarts  of  milk  daily.  He 
gives  a  confident  opinion  that  the  quantity  of  water  drunk 
by  a  cow  is  an  important  test  of  her  value  as  a  milker. 

These  experiments,  although  they  may  not  be  quite 
sufficient  to  induce  confidence  in  M.  DanceFs  rule,  yet  it 
is  certain  that  abundance  of  pure  water  is  an  absolute 
necessity  to  be  provided  by  a  successful  dairyman.  As 
water  permeates  every  part  of  the  system  of  the  cow,  its 
purity  is  of  the  first  consideration.  The  quality  of  the 
water  effects  the  health  of  the  cow  and  the  healthfulness 
of  her  milk.  The  impurities  of  stagnant  water,  in  the 
form  of  organic  germs,  pass  in  a  dormant  state  into  the 
circulation  of  the  blood,  and  thence  into  the  secretions  of 
milk  ;  and  so  powerful  are  these  taints  that  it  is  not  unfre- 
quently,  at  cheese  factories,  that  the  milk  of  one  cow 
spoils  a  large  vat  of  milk.  So  important  is  the  quality  of 
water  for  the  cow,  that  it  is  none  too  severe  a  test  to  say 
that  no  water  is  fit  for  a  milch  cow  that  is  not  fit  also  for 
man  to  drink.  Water  should  also  be  easy  of  access,  both 
in  winter  and   summer.     In  winter  it  should  either  be 


354  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

given  them  where  they  stand  in  the  stall,  or  near  by,  so 
guarded  that  they  may  drink  unmolested. 

In  summer,  if  possible,  water  should  be  furnished  in 
each  pasture  field.  Cows  should  not  be  required  to  travel 
for  it,  because  they  will  not  do  this  on  a  hot  day,  unless 
very  thirsty,  and  consequently  they  will  not  drink  as  much 
as  a  large  yield  of  milk  requires.  When  a  farm  affords  a 
small,  running  stream,  this  should  be  conducted  into  every 
pasture  field,  if  practicable,  or  every  pasture  should  be 
connected  with  the  stream.  Or,  where  a  spring  is  located 
upon  an  elevated  part  of  the  farm,  the  water  from  it  should 
be  carried  in  pipes  to  each  pasture  field,  and  caused  to  run 
into  troughs  which  are  always  kept  full.  And,  where 
water  can  be  had  by  sinking  wells,  these  should  be  fur- 
nished in  each  field,  and  the  water  pumped  by  wind  or 
hand,  so  as  to  give  the  cows  free  access  to  water  at  all 
times.  The  cost  of  sinking  these  wells  will  often  be  repaid 
in  a  single  season.  Some  dairymen  are  content  to  drive 
their  cows  to  water,  even  in  summer,  only  once  per  day. 
But  such  dairymen  are  destined  to  constant  disappoint- 
ment in  the  profits  of  the  dairy. 

To  induce  cows  to  drink  often,  some  of  the  most  suc- 
cessful dairymen,  where  water  was  pumped  by  hand  into 
large  troughs,  put  from  K  to  1  lb.  per  cow  of  oil-meal  into 
the  water-trough  daily,  with  K  oz.  of  salt,  and,  stirring 
this  well  in  the  water,  gives  it  a  taste  so  much  relished  by 
the  cows  that  they  come  often  and  sip  a  few  quarts.  By 
this  means  they  were  not  only  induced  to  drink  much 
water,  but  the  small  amount  of  oil-meal  assisted  in  in- 
creasing the  yield  of  milk.  Bran  or  middling  may  be  used 
instead  ;  and  we  can  assure  every  dairyman  that  the  cows 
will  return  this  liberality,  with  compound  interest,  in  milk. 

We  have,  perhaps,  elsewhere,  sufficiently  urged  the  im- 
portance of  giving  cows,  in  winter,  water  of  moderate 
temperature.     It  is   doing  violence  to  the  system  of   the 


WATER    FOR    COWS.  355 

COW  to  require  her  to  drink  large  quantities  of  ice-cold 
water,  and  warm  this  in  her  stomach,  jiroducing  a  chill  of 
the  whole  system.  Such  a  method  of  watering  must  be 
unsuccessful  in  winter  dairying,  for  this  cold  water  retards 
digestion,  when  given  in  large  quantity.  It  can  only  safely 
be  given  in  one  or  two  gallons  at  a  time,  and  this  Avould 
entail  more  exi:)ense  than  furnishing  water  at  a  temperature 
of  GO  degrees.  When  cows  are  kept  in  a  warm  stable,  and 
water  can  be  brought  to  the  stable  from  a  spring,  in  pipes 
laid  below  frost,  it  may  be  run  into  a  trough  within  reach 
of  the  cows,  the  surplus  running  off;  or  Avater  may  be 
furnished  from  a  large  reservoir,  which  will  stand  con- 
stantly at  about  GO  degrees.  There  are  many  ways  in 
which  water  at  moderate  temperature  may  be  furnished  to 
cows  in  winter. 

Pasturing  Dairy  Cows. 

As  this  is  the  almost  universal  method  of  keeping  dairy 
cows  in  summer,  it  becomes  important  to  discuss  the  most 
economical  use  of  pasturage.  Our  readers  will  hardly  be  at 
a  loss  to  know  what  we  mean  by  economy.  Economy  re- 
quires the  dairyman  to  get  the  largest  production  from 
each  acre  of  his  pasture,  and  this  can  be  done  by  keeping 
only  so  many  cows  as  his  pastures  will  yield  full  rations  to. 
Overstocking  can  result  only  in  a  lessened  production. 

Variety  of  Grasses. 

In  laying  down  pastures  for  dairy  cows  great  care  should 
be  exercised  in  selecting  the  seed  of  a  large  number  of 
grasses.  This  is  important;  first,  because  the  land  will 
produce  a  much  larger  yield  of  food  from  a  large  number 
of  different  grasses  which  completely  occupy  the  soil,  than 
from  two  or  three  that  leave  spaces  unoccupied ;  and,  sec- 
ondly, and  still  more  important,  because  animals  require 
variety  in  their  food,  and  especially  the  milch  cow,  that 


356  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

yields  so  abundant  and  complex  a  product  in  her  milk. 
Milk  contains  all  the  elements  of  the  living  animal  body  in 
solution.  The  cow  must,  therefore,  have  a  great  variety, 
or  complex  food,  out  of  which  to  elaborate  this  production. 
The  dairyman  cannot  give  this  too  much  consideration. 
Many  of  our  natural  pastures  contain  from  thirty  to  sixty 
species  of  grasses  ;  and  when  good  cows  are  fed  uj)on  such 
pastures  they  are  noted  for  the  high  quality  of  their  milk 
and  butter  and  cheese.  Some  of  these  wild  grasses  are 
classed  as  weeds  by  farmers  when  they  come  into  their 
grain-fields,  but  they  are  highly  relished  by  cattle  in  their 
succulent  state.  All  of  these  wild  grasses  cannot  be  sown 
in  pasture ;  but  they  will  frequently  maintain  a  foothold 
with  the  cultivated  grasses  sown.  It  is  well  known  that 
dairy  products  do  not  have  that  extra  fine  flavor  when  pro- 
duced on  a  pasture  of  timothy  and  clover  alone;  and, 
therefore,  permanent  pastures  have  been  much  advocated. 
But  American  farmers  have  not  been  so  careful  in  selecting 
a  variety  of  the  cultivated  grasses  as  they  might  have  been. 
It  is  quite  unusual  for  our  dairy  formers  to  sow  on  pastures 
more  than  timothy  {Phleum  pratense)  and  red  clover  {Tri- 
folium  2)ratense),  occasionally  adding  June  grass  {Poa  pra- 
tensis)j  or  orchard  grass  (Dactylis  glomeraia),  or  white 
clover  {TrifoliiLm  repens),  and  in  very  exceptional  cases  all 
of  them.  If  this  list  were  generally  used,  it  would  greatly 
improve  the  pastures  of  the  whole  country  ;  but  this  mea- 
gre list  should  be  enlarged  by  those  who  desire  the  great 
advantages  of  variety  in  the  food  of  their  cows,  and  are 
endeavoring  to  establish  permanent  pastures.  It  is  true 
that  red  clover  is  usually  a  biennial,  and  will  not  last  long, 
yet  will  be  of  much  service  in  the  beginning;  but  there  is 
a  perennial  variety  of  red  clover  (Tr (folium  pratense  ye- 
renne),  and  is  found  in  almost  every  field  of  clover.  That 
enthusiastic  botanist,  the  late  John  Stanton  Gould,  says  of 
the  perennial  : 


PASTURE   GRASSES.  357 

"  It  may  be  distinguished,  in  general,  at  a  glance,  by  its 
deeper,  blnish-green  color,  the  greater  narrowness  of  the 
leaves,  its  more  straggling,  and  the  greater  number,  greater 
length  and  greater  stiffness  of  its  hairs.  The  root  of  this 
variety  differs  considerably  from  the  biennial  kind;  it  is 
somewhat  cree^Ding  and  fibrous,  whereas  the  biennial  has  an 
almost  spindle-shaped  root,  with  less  fibres.  The  root  is 
the  best  test  in  doubtful  cases." 

Mr.  Sinclair  says  this  variety  is  found  in  great  abundance 
in  Lincolnshire,  England,  and  that  it  flourishes  better  on 
clayey  or  peaty  soils  than  the  biennial.  This  perennial 
clover-seed  cannot  now  be  found  in  the  market ;  but  a  lit- 
tle attention  of  cultivators  might  soon  furnish  the  seed, 
Avhich  would  be  a  great  gain  to  pastures.  White  clover  is 
apt  to  come  of  itself  on  lands  suited  to  it ;  but  it  would  be 
well  to  sow  two  or  three  pounds  of  the  seed  per  acre. 

Red-top,  or  herds  grass  {Agrostis  vulgaris),  should  never 
be  omitted  where  the  land  is  moist,  for  it  is  a  constant 
resource  in  pastures,  as  it  grows  equally  throughout  the 
season.  It  starts  much  sooner  after  cropping  or  cutting 
than  timothy.  It  has  thick,  interlacing  roots,  and  on  wet 
lands  it  consolidates  and  toughens  the  sward,  making  such 
a  firm  matting  that  the  feet  of  cattle  do  not  easily  break  it. 
It  has  a  high  reputation  among  dairymen  as  producing  a 
large  amount  of  food  and  improving  the  flavor  of  the 
butter. 

Of  the  Poas,  Kentucky  olue-grass,  or  June-grass,  stands 
at  the  head,  and  is  too  well  known  to  require  any  descrip- 
tion or  commendation;  but  wire  grass,  also  called  blue- 
grass  {Poa  covipressa),  which  is  found  indigenous  in  many 
localities,  is  not  so  well  understood,  and  requires  some 
attention.  This  is  in  meadows  often  considered  a  nui- 
sance, because  it  holds  its  footing  so  strongly  as  to  run  out 
other  grasses,  and  produces  a  small  bulk  of  hay,  but  very 
heavy  for  its  bulk.     It  is  one  of  the  most  nutritious  grasses 


358  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

m  our  whole  list.  It  starts  early  in  spring,  and  keeps  green 
and  succulent  even  after  the  seed  is  ripe.  We  think  it  very 
valuable  as  a  pasture  grass.  ^Ir.  Gould  mentions  that  it 
did  not  form  a  close  turf  with  him  ;  but,  with  us,  no  grass 
forms  a  closer  and  tougher  sod.  It  seems  to  be  less  affected 
by  drouth  or  wet  than  many  other  grasses,  and  cows  yield 
well  when  supplied  with  it  in  pasture  or  stall.  It  is  so 
nutritious,  when  cut  in  season  and  properly  cured  as  hay, 
that  cows  Will  yield  more  milk  upon  it  than  any  other  hay 
we  have  tried ;  and  horses  will  work  upon  it  as  well  as  upon 
timothy,  with  a  moderate  feed  of  oats.  It  should  have  a 
place  in  all  pastures  where  the  natural  grasses  flourish. 

Sweet-scented  vernal  grass  {AntJioxantlium  odorahun) 
should  not  be  forgotten  in  the  list  of  pasture  grasses  for 
milch  cows.  It  starts  very  early  in  spring  and  flowers  in 
May.  Its  odor  in  blossom  seems  to  be  too  strong  for  the 
taste  of  cattle  when  grown  alone;  but,  if  mixed  with  other 
grasses  in  pasture  or  in  hay,  it  is  eaten  with  a  relish,  and  is 
thought  to  give  a  fine  flavor  to  milk.  It  does  not  produce 
a  large  weight  of  hay;  but  its  odor  and  flavor  and  early 
growth  in  spring  will  warrant  the  use  of  about  two  pounds 
of  seed  to  the  acre. 

American  dairy  farmers  have  given  quite  too  little  atten- 
tion to  keeping  up  the.  condition  of  their  pastures.  Since 
the  system  of  pasturing  is  almost  universally  followed,  and 
the  principal  income  from  their  dairy  herds  depends  upon 
the  supply  and  condition  of  food  there  furnished,  the  most 
imperative  necessity  demands  that  they  study  the  means  of 
improving  them.  Meadows  are  often  considered  worthy  of 
attention  and  fertilization  ;  but  pastures  are  not  thought  to 
need  such  attention,  because  cattle  leave  their  droppings 
upon  them;  yet  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  milch  cow 
carries  off  from  the  pasture — never  to  return — the  fertiliz- 
ing matter  in  her  milk.  The  cow  that  yields  6,000  pounds 
of  milk  will  carry  off  about  40  pounds  of  ammonia  and  40 


FERTILIZIITG   PASTURES.  359 

pounds  of  mineral  matter.  And  it  is  easy  to  see  that  past- 
uring for  a  long  series  of  years  must  gradually  carry  off  the 
fertility  of  the  soil.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  that  there 
should  be  some  provision  for  fertilizing  permanent  pastures 
used  for  the  production  of  milk. 

Extra  Food  to  Fertilize  Pastures. 

We  think  one  of  the  best  methods  of  keeping  up  the  fer- 
tility of  cow-pastures  is  to  give  the  cows  extra  food  during 
the  pasturing  season.  Tliis  extra  food  will  be  repaid  in 
extra  milk  every  week,  and  so  enrich  the  droppings  as  to 
fully  compensate  the  pasture  for  all  the  grazing.  This 
extra  food  can  be  given  at  such  times  as  the  condition  of 
the  pasture  requires  to  give  the  cows  full  rations.  Under 
this  system  a  few  more  cows  may  be  kept  than  the  pasture 
is  sufficient  to  furnish  food  for ;  and  thus  the  pasture  will 
be  cropped  evenly  over  the  whole  field,  and  the  grass  all 
economized.  While  the  grass  furnishes  abundance  of  food, 
it  will  not  be  necessary  to  add  the  ration.  This  extra  food 
will  come  in  to  keep  up  a  proper  balance  between  the 
requirements  of  the  cows  and  the  condition  of  the  pasture. 
This  extra  food  may  all  be  given  in  green  clover,  rye  or 
other  green  food  grown  upon  other  fields,  or  fed  to  the 
cows  in  racks  arranged  in  the  pasture,  or  in  stable,  with  the 
manure  distributed  over  the  pasture  as  a  top-dressing;  or 
this  extra  food  may  be  given  in  bran,  corn-meal,  linseed-oil 
meal,  cotton-seed  meal,  barley  sprouts,  or  other  grain  food. 
Some  think  it  quite  as  economical  to  use  one  or  more  of 
these  extra  foods  during  the  period  before  green  corn,  mil- 
let, peas  and  oats,  etc.,  can  be  sufficiently  matured  for  this 
purpose.  They  reason  in  this  way :  If  the  extra  milk  will 
fully  pay  for  these  foods,  then  it  is  better  to  use  them, 
because  this  extra  fertilizing  matter  is  brought  to  the  laud, 
instead  of  being  taken  from  it.  Hundreds  of  experiments 
have  shown  that  good  cows  will  yield  more  than  extra  milk 


360  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

enough  to  pay  for  these  extra  foods.  Poor  cows  will  not 
respond  so  much  to  extra  feeding,  and  will  not,  in  fact,  pay 
a  profit  under  any  system  of  feeding;  they  are  not,  there- 
fore, to  be  considered  in  this  statement. 

Peas  and  oats,  grown  together,  just  when  the  peas  are 
past  the  blossom,  make  an  excellent  extra  food  to  make  up 
for  deficiency  of  pastures. 

Sweet  corn — early  and  late  varieties — is  most  excellent 
food  for  the  production  of  milk.  The  early  varieties  will 
come  on  the  latter  part  of  July,  and  give  the  cows  a  much- 
relished  food. 

Stowell's  evergreen  is  an  excellent  late  variety  which  may 
be  fed  through  September  and  October,  and  even  later. 
This  corn,  to  be  fed  green,  should  be  cultivated  in  the  same 
manner  as  wheii  intended  for  market.  Thick  sowing  is 
now  quite  abandoned  by  the  most  careful  feeders.  It 
should  be  planted  in  drills  at  least  3'^  inches  apart,  and  cul- 
tivated two  or  more  times,  according  to  the  condition  of 
the  soil.  Sweet  corn  for  such  feeding  is  altogether  to  be 
preferred  to  common  field  corn,  because  of  its  remaining 
succulent  so  much  longer,  and  also  because  it  contains 
much  more  sugar  and  less  starch.  The  sugar  is  more  easily 
digested  and  assimilated,  and  makes  better  flavored  milk. 
It  is  intended  to  allow  the  sweet  corn  to  mature  to  nearly 
the  same  stage  as  when  it  is  sent  to  market  for  culinary  use. 
It  is  in  the  best  condition  for  feeding  after  being  run 
through  a  straw  cutter;  but  cows  will  eat  it  greedily  with- 
out cutting.  Sweet  corn  has  a  larger  percentage  of  albu- 
minoids tlitin  common  corn.  This  corn  is  also  excellent  to 
feed  with  late  cuttings  of  clover,  and  with  green  peas  and 
oats.  If  the  dairyman  will  prepare  the  land,  and  put  in 
one  acre  to  each  five  cows  in  his  herd  with  sweet  corn,  peas 
and  oats,  or  millet,  to  be  fed  at  the  proper  season,  he  will 
not  only  get  the  best  yield  from  his  cows,  but  keep  up  the 
fertility  of  his  pastures. 


FEEDING  HORSES.  361 


CHAPTER   X. 

HORSES. 

We  will  now  give  our  attention  to  another  grept  class 
of  farm  stock,  that  which  furnishes  the  motive  power  upon 
the  farm  and  in  the  cities — horses. 

We  must  here  also  first  discuss  the  wants  of  the  young 
animal,  as  the  proper  management  of  the  young  is  the  first 
requisite  to  success.  It  is  not  within  our  province  to 
discuss  the  question  of  breeding,  but  must  take  the 
animals  as  we  find  them  and  make  the  most  of  their  capa- 
bilities. Much  improvement  of  the  constitution  and  vital 
forces  of  animals  may  be  made  by  breeding;  but  as  the 
finest  pattern  of  boiler  and  engine  are  useless  without  fuel 
to  make  steam,  so  the  finest  animal  forms  are  quite 
unprofitable  without  skillful  feeding  to  develop  and  round 
out  all  their  j^roportions. 

The  horse  is  kept  for  his  muscle,  and  his  food  must 
be  such  as  to  develop  the  frame  and  mustular  system.  The 
feeder  must  have  a  clear  idea  of  the  purpose  for  which  an 
animal  is  reared,  and  a  comprehension  of  the  ofiice  per- 
formed by  the  food.  The  food  should  present  the  precise 
elements  in  the  proper  proportion  required  for  the  uses  of 
the  animal.  Animals  kept  for  the  production  of  flesh  as 
food,  can  use  a  larger  proportion  of  carljonaceous  elements 
than  those  valuable  only  for  muscle.  Indian  corn  is  the  great 
crop  of  the  West,  and  is  the  best  type  of  fattening  food, 
and  has  abundant  use  in  the  production  of  beef,  mutton 
and  pork.  It  may  also  properly  form  a  part  of  the  food 
16 


362  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

of  horses,  and  even  for  colts,  but  to  the  latter  must  be 
fed  very  sparingly.  Bear  in  mind,  it  is  chiefly  the  muscle 
and  the  finest  quality  of  springy  bone  that  requires 
development  in  the 

Colt. 

As  we  are  now  studying  the  proper  development  of  the 
colt,  let  us  see  what  Nature  provides  for  its  early  growth. 
It  will  be  seen  from  the  analysis  of  the  mare's  milk,  which 
we  gave  on  page  138,  that  the  casein,  or  muscle-forming 
element,  is  3.40  per  cent.,  butter  2.50,  milk  sugar  3.52,  ash 
.53  per  cent.,  and  water  90.05  per  cent.  The  mare's  milk 
contains  a  larger  percentage  of  water  than  cow's  milk,  but 
the  relative  proportion  of  the  food  elements  is  nearly  the 
same.  There  is  9.95  per  cent,  of  dry  matter  (food)  in 
mare's  milk,  and  of  this  the  food  of  respiration  and  fat 
production  (butter  and  milk  sugar)  amount  to  6.02  per 
cent.,  so  the  casein  amounts  to  3.40  jDer  cent.,  or  more 
than  one-third  of  the  whole.  This  gives  a  little  more 
tlian  one  of  nitrogenous  to  two  of  carbonaceous  elements. 
The  colt  thus  receives  food,  in  the  mother's  milk,  in  the 
proportion  of  one  of  nitrogenous  (muscle-forming)  to  1.92 
of  carbonaceous  elements.  This  tells  us,  in  the  strongest 
possible  language,  that  the  colt  requires  food  rich  in 
muscle-forming  elements,  and  that  it  is  a  great  mistake  to 
use  food  rich  in  starch,  such  as  corn,  or  even  barley,  for 
the  young  colt. 

For  four  to  six  months  the  colt  takes  its  natural  food — 
the  milk  of  the  dam.  If  this  is  in  liberal  supply,  the  colt 
will  be  sufficiently  nourished  with  the  addition  of  the  grass 
it  will  get  in  pasture.  But  care  must  be  taken  to  ascertain 
whether  the  dam  gives  sufficient  milk  to  produce  a  strong 
growth.  Scanty  nourishment  at  this  period  is  often  fatal 
to  full  development  afterward.  The  whole  system  of  the 
young  animal  is  plastic  in  the  hands  of  the  skillful  feeder. 


MILK   RATIONS'  FOR   COLT.  363 

Full  rations  of  appropriate  food  will  give  it  the  habit  of 
strong  and  rapid  growth,  which  is  easily  continued  after 
weaning;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  deficient  nourishment 
will  not  only  contract  its  present  growth,  but  also  contract 
its  powers  of  digestion  so  as  to  incapacitate  it  for  using 
sufficient  food  to  give  full  growth  after  weaning.  The 
vigorous  growth  of  a  colt  while  young  is  too  important 
to  be  neglected  on  any  pretext,  such  as  that  "  whip-cord 
muscle  and  solid  bone  must  be  grown  very  slowly  that  the 
fibres  may  become  perfect,"  etc.  There  is  a  vast  amount 
of  such  humbug  afloat.  Slow  growth  joresupposes  scanty 
food;  does  insufficient  nutrition  produce  the  most  perfect 
development?  Taking  a  lesson  from  tree  growth :  How 
does  the  fibre  of  the  slow-growing,  large,  forest  hickory 
compare  with  that  of  the  rapid,  open  field,  second-growth 
hickory — the  grain  of  the  latter  being  twice  or  thrice  the 
thickness  of  the  former  ?  Will  the  expert,  who  wants  an 
ax-helve  or  spokes  for  a  trotting  sulky,  choose  the  slow- 
growing  hickory  in  preference  to  the  rapid  second-growth? 
The  same  rule  will  hold  between  two  colts,  the  one  scantily 
and  the  other  abundantly  fed.  But  as  in  this  case  of 
the  rapidly-growing  hickory,  we  wish  it  seasoned  to  give  us 
the  full  force  of  its  springy  fibre;  so  likewise  the  rapidly- 
growing  colt  must  have  a  time  of  seasoning  to  perfect,  by 
temperate  use  and  intelligent  training,  its  wonderful  power 
of  muscular  endurance.  It  seems  this  foolish  prejudice 
against  good  feeding  for  colts  has  arisen  from  the  fact  that 
high  feeding  and  fattening  have  been  considered  synony- 
mous. Such  food  as  would  produce  fat  rather  than  muscle 
cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned. 

Milk  Katioi^  for  Colt. 

If  the  dam  yields  too  little  milk  to  produce  vigorous 
growth  in  the  colt,  it  should  be  increased  by  food  of  as 
nearly  the  same  composition  as  may  be.     This  is  nearly 


364  FEEDING  ANIMALS. 

always  at  hand  in  cow's  milk.  A  little  practice  will  soon 
teach  the  young  colt  to  take  cow's  milk  with  a  relish.  New 
milk  may  be  given  at  first,  but  soon  replaced  with  skim- 
milk,  which,  possessing  so  large  a  proportion  of  casein,  or 
muscle-forming  food,  and  phosphate  of  lime,  is  exactly 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  muscle  and  bone.  This  is  also 
so  cheap  that  vigorous  growth  may  be  kept  up  at  very 
small  cost.  For  colts  one  or  two  months  old,  one  quart  of 
milk  given  morning  and  evening  will  be  sufficient.  It  may 
be  sweetened  a  little  at  first  to  render  it  more  palatable. 
Colts,  like  children,  are  fond  of  sweets ;  but  sugar  should 
only  be  added  as  a  temptation  in  teaching  them  to  eat,  for 
it  is  a  fattening  food  and  improper  to  be  given  as  a  diet. 
This  use  of  cow's  milk  in  growing  colts  is  not  a  mere 
theory  Avith  the  author,  he  has  tested  it  in  many  in- 
stances, and  found  it  admirably  adapted  to  the  purpose. 
He  remembers  two  colts  that  were  fed  a  little  skim.-milk 
after  two  months  old  till  weaned,  and  then  continued  in 
larger  quantity  after  weaning  and  through  the  first  winter. 
They  were  given  from  four  to  six  quarts  of  milk  each,  per 
day,  with  hay  and  one  quart  of  oats,  till  one  year  old. 
These  colts  grew  very  steadily,  developing  all  parts  of  the 
body  evenly,  and  made  horses  100  lbs.  heavier  than  either 
sire  or  dam.  They  were  much  inclined  to  exercise,  and 
test  comparative  speed,  at  all  periods  during  groAvth,  and 
more  muscular  horses,  of  their  inches,  are  seldom  seen. 
We  once  purchased  some  colts  six  months  old,  of  a  good 
breed,  that  had  been  kept  on  insuflicient  food,  and  not 
properly  developed  for  that  age.  To  make  amends  for 
this  want  of  care  and  food,  four  quarts  of  skim-milk  was 
given  to  each  colt  for  one  month  and  then  increased  to  six 
quarts,  which  ration,  with  two  quarts  of  oats  per  day,  was 
continued  for  six  months,  or  till  one  year  old.  This  pro- 
duced a  development  which  no  grain  ratio^.i  could  have 
done.  The  advantage  of  the  milk  ration  over  a  like  amount 


RATION   FOR   COLT.  365 

of  food,  containing  the  same  elements,  in  another  form,  is, 
that  the  food  in  the  milk  is  in  solution  and  very  easily 
digested.  Stress  is  laid  upon  this  milk  feeding  for  colts, 
first,  because  it  is  a  most  appropriate  food;  secondly, 
because  in  large  portions  of  the  country  skim-milk  can  be 
had  cheap,  and  it  may  be  thus  turned  to  the  best  account, 
for  horse-flesh  is  more  valuable  than  that  of  other  animals. 
If  milk  is  not  easily  obtained,  then  the  colt  may  be  fed  a 
pint  of  oats  twice  a  day,  in  addition  to  the  milk  of  its 
dam,  if  that  is  too  small  in  quantity.  Before  the  colt  is 
weaned,  it  is  well  to  teach  it  to  eat  a  little  linseed-meal 
with  its  oats.  When  deprived  of  the  dam's  milk  this 
linseed-meal  will  prevent  constipation  and  furnish  a  large 
proportion  of  muscle-forming  food  as  well  as  bone  material. 
About  one  pint  of  linseed-meal  per  day  will  be  sufficient. 
Another  food,  which  we  have  used  very  profitably  for  the 
young  colt,  is  linseed  or.  flax-seed.  A  half-pint  of  flax- 
seed boiled  in  four  quarts  of  water,  and  then  two  quarts 
of  bran  or  oatmeal  boiled  with  it,  makes  an  excellent  day's 
ration  for  a  colt  eight  months  old,  given  in  two  parts — 
the  oil  and  the  albuminoids  seem  to  be  in  just  the  right 
proportion.  We  have  found  this  ration  of  flax-seed  and 
oatmeal  gruel  the  best  preventative  of  relaxation  or  consti- 
pation of  the  bowels,  both  in  the  colt  and  the  calf.  If  the 
colt  is  in  good  condition,  half  the  quantity  here  mentioned 
is  sufficient.  The  small  quantity  of  oil  seems  to  be  very 
soothing  to  the  alimentary  canal,  and  it  gives  a  smooth, 
glossy  coat. 

Food  for  the  Dam. 

The  condition  and  health  of  the  dam  has  much  to  do 
with  the  health  of  the  colt.  Great  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  dam  does  not  heat  her  blood,  and  thus  affect  the 
healthfulness  of  her  milk.  The  milk  secretions  are  very 
sympathetic  with  all  nervous  excitements.     This  has  often 


366  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

been  tested  in  the  milk  of  the  cow.  The  chemical  compo- 
sition of  the  milk  has  been  largely  changed  in  its  propor- 
tions by  a  little  worry  and  excitement,  such  as  rapid  driv- 
ing, or  being  worried  by  a  dog.  There  is  no  objection  to 
light  work  for  the  dam  after  the  foal  is  two  weeks  old ;  but 
this  should  be  such  work  as  she  can  do  without  worry  or 
too  much  fatigue.  The  foal  should  early  be  accustomed  to 
being  left  in  a  loose  box  or  stable.  That  the  dam  may  be 
able  to  furnish  a  generous  supply  of  milk  to  the  foal,  she 
must  have  a  liberal  supply  of  food  herself.  It  must  be  re- 
membered, that  the  dam  requires  food  for  the  support  of 
two  lives,  and  that,  if  she  is  required  to  do  light  labor  in 
addition,  she  must  have  a  ration  in  proportion.  We  have 
seen,  from  the  composition  of  the  mare's  milk  (page  138), 
that  it  is  rich  in  albuminoids,  and,  therefore,  her  food  must 
be  rich  in  albuminous  elements.  Pasture  grasses,  when  a 
few  inches  high,  contain  a  much  larger  percentage  of  albu- 
minoids than  when  in  the  mature  state.  This  accounts  for 
the  large  yield  of  milk  by  cows,  and  the  rapid  laying-on  of 
flesh  by  steers,  when  feeding  upon  such  vigorously-growing 
young  grass.  Clover,  before  blossom,  is  also  a  most  excel- 
lent food  for  the  dam  and  for  the  colt.  But  the  dam 
should  also  have  a  small  grain  ration,  even  upon  good  pas- 
ture, when  she  is  required  to  perform  labor.  Good  wheat 
bran  is  a  very  appropriate  extra  ration  for  the  dam,  because 
it  contains  from  12  to  16  per  cent,  of  albuminous  food; 
but  oats  are  equally  rich  in  nitrogen,  and  are  always  proper 
food  for  the  brood  mare.  If  the  dam  is  being  fed  upon 
hay,  then  she  should  have  a  daily  bran  mash,  with  one 
pint  of  oil-meal  added — such  sloppy  food  will  increase  the 
secretion  of  milk  when  upon  dry  fodder.  The  new  process 
linseed-meal  will  be  found  profitable  food  for  the  dam  in 
small  quantity,  say  one  to  two  pounds  per  day.  It  is  more 
important  if  the  dam  is  on  dry  food.  The  dam,  during 
this  period,  should  be  treated  with  great  kindness  and  gen- 


WEIGHT  AND   GROWTH   OF   FOALS.  367 

tleness,  avoiding  all  excitement.  If  the  foal  is  allowed 
occasionally  to  go  to  the  field  with  the  dam  while  at  work, 
and  also  on  the  road,  for  very  short  drives,  it  will  familiar- 
ize it  with  such  objects  as  will  surround  it  afterwards,  and 
it  will  thus  be  made  more  fearless. 

The  colt  should  be  handled  almost  daily  while  with  the 
dam,  and  made  familiar  with  men.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  to  avoid  frightening  it.  It  should  be  taught  to 
regard  man  as  its  greatest  friend,  from  whom  it  may  always 
expect  a  pleasant  caress,  or  something  agreeable  to  eat. 
This  is  not  only  important  in  reference  to  its  future  temper 
and  usefulness,  but  vastly  important  to  its  rapid  growth. 
Animals  do  not  thrive  under  excitement  and  irritation. 
There  is  no  place  for  a  passionate  man  among  young  ani- 
mals, and  not  a  very  profitable  place  for  him  anywhere. 
We  often  hear  of  very  different  results  from  the  same  food, 
upon  animals  of  the  same  age  and  class ;  but  our  exjoeri- 
ence  has  proved  that  this  is  caused  in  more  cases  by  the 
feeder  than  the  animal.  If,  then,  the  colt-raiser  desires  to 
produce  the  greatest  result  with  the  least  food,  he  must 
accompany  the  food  with  the  kindest  and  most  pleasant 
treatment. 

Weight  and  Growth  of  Foals. 

The  rate  of  growth  in  foals,  and  the  food  required  to 
make  a  pound  growth,  have  not  been  much  studied.  In- 
deed, we  are  aware  of  but  one  published  experiment  as  to 
the  weight  and  growth  of  foals,  besides  the  one  made  by 
the  author.  Some  years  since  he  weighed  three  foals  at 
birth;  the  dam  of  No.  1  weighing  1,000  lbs.;  of  No.  2, 
1,025  lbs.,  and  of  No.  3,  950  lbs.  The  sire  (a  good  general 
purpose  horse)  weighed  1,120  lbs.  The  following  table 
will  show  the  weight  and  growth  of  these  foals  for  two 
separate  periods,  as  well  as  those  in  the  experiments  of 
Boussingault : 


368 


FEEDING    ANIMALS. 


Names. 

|3 

tCT3 

1^ 

1 

r 

pi 

^1, 

No.l, Filly 

No.  2,  Colt 

lbs. 
108 
116 
111 

110 
113 
113 

110 

110 

lbs. 
280 
301 
310 

at  87  days 
294 
2K6 
354 

295 

at  128  days 

387 

lbs. 
172 

185 
199 

184 
172 
241 

185 

227 

lbs. 
1.91 
2  05 
2.21 

2.1 
1.9 
2.7 

2.05 

1.8 

lbs. 
400 
410 
890 

at  152  days 
"358" 

at'ifio'days 

396 
at  179  days 

490 

lbs. 
2.00 
1  81 

No.  3,  Filly   

BOUSSINGAXTLT. 

No.  1,  Filly 

1.33 

No.  2,     "     

1  10 

No.  3,    "     

No.  4,     "     

No.  5,  Colt 

1.10 
1.4 

The  first  four  in  Boussingault's  experiment  were  Aveaned 
at  87  days,  and  No.  5  at  128  days.  Tlie  second  period  was 
after  weaning,  and  the  gain  was  much  slower.  The  mean 
increase  of  his  foals  during  the  period  of  suckling  was  2.11 
lljs  per  day.  Our  three  foals  had  only  the  milk  of  the 
dams  during  90  days,  and  the  average  gain  per  day  was 
2.06  lbs.  The  next  60  days  they  each  had  one  pint  of  oats 
per  day,  in  addition  to  milk  of  dam,  and  the  average  gain 
per  day  was  1.71  lbs.  Had  the  extra  feed  been  one  quart, 
they  would  probably  have  gained  as  fast  as  during  the  first 
90  days.  The  colt,  however,  is  no  exception  to  other  ani- 
mals, in  that  the  increase  is  more  rapid,  on  the  same  food, 
while  under  three  or  four  months  old  than  afterward. 

"We  continued  the  experiment  by  noting  the  gain  in 
weight  of  our  three  colts  for  180  days  longer,  weighing  the 
food  given,  so  as  to  determine  the  cost  in  food  of  each 
pound  of  live  weight.  Each  colt  had  two  quarts  of  skim- 
milk,  commencing  on  the  16th  of  November,  given  with 
oat-meal  at  the  time  of  weaning,  and  continuing  for  30 
days.  The  average  ration  per  day  for  the  whole  180  days, 
from  the  16th  of  November  to  the  15th  of  May,  exclusive 
of  milk,  consisted  of  22  lbs.  of  clover  hay,  6  lbs.  of  oat- 
meal, 3  lbs.  of  wheat  bran,  and  2  lbs.  of  oil-meal,  for  the 
three,  making  a  daily  allowance  per  head  of  11  lbs.  of  this 


GROWTH   OF   FOALS.  369 

mixed  food.  The  weight  of  each  on  the  15th  day  of  May, 
was,  No.  1,  634  lbs.,  a  gain  of  1.3  lbs.  per  day;  No.  2,  616 
lbs.,  a  gain  of  1.14  lbs.  per  day;  No.  3,  630  lbs.,  a  gain  of 
1.33  lbs.  per  day;  being  an  average  gain  of  1.26  lbs.  per 
head  per  day,  during  the  cold  season,  on  11  lbs.  of  mixed 
food.  This  gives  a  pound  live  weight  for  8.72  lbs.,  of 
mixed  food.  European  feeders  are  much  accustomed  to 
estimate  all  foods  on  the  basis  of  hay;  thus  the  11  lbs.  of 
oats  and  other  grain  would  be  equal  to  17  lbs.  of  hay, 
making  the  whole  ration  equal  to  39  lbs.  for  the  three  colts, 
or  13  lbs.  per  head.  This  would  make  a  pound  gain  in  live 
weight  cost  10.31  lbs.  of  hay. 

Boussingault  mentions  that  he  tested  the  quantity  of 
provender  consumed  by  foals  in  full  growth  by  taking  Nos. 
2,  4  and  5  when  their  united  weight  was  1,106  lbs.,  or  their 
average  weight  368.6  lbs.,  and  found  that  they  consumed 
19.8  lbs.  of  hay  and  7  lbs.  of  oats,  which  he  calls  equal  to 
11  lbs.  of  hay— all  equal  to  30.8  lbs.  of  hay,  or  10.26  lbs. 
each.  On  this  they  made  an  average  gain  of  1.2  lbs.  per 
day.  This  was  doing  slightly  better  than  our  three  colts; 
but  he  does  not  state  how  long  this  experiment  continued, 
and  we  are  left  to  infer  that  it  was  not  long.  Both  of 
these  cases  show  that  the  colt  utilizes  his  food  as  well,  and 
adds  a  pound  live  weight  from  about  the  same  food  as  the 
calf.  If  we  take  the  united  weight  (1,200  lbs.)  of  our  three 
colts  on  the  16th  of  November,  and  their  united  weight 
(1,880  lbs.)  on  the  15th  of  May,  we  shall  find  that  their 
average  weight  during  that  180  days  was  1,540  lbs.,  or  519 
lbs.  each;  and  if  we  call  the  ration  13  lbs.  of  hay,  it  gives 
2H  per  cent,  of  their  live  weight  as  an  average  ration.  If 
we  estimate  the  cost  of  this  ration,  we  shall  find  the  cost  of 
putting  a  pound  live  weight  upon  a  foal  under  full  feeding, 

22  lbs.  of  hay,  at  ^  cent 11     cts. 

6    "  oats,  at  1 1^  cents 73^    " 

3    "  bran,  at  %  cent 2^    " 

3    "  oil-meal,  at  2  cents 4       '* 

Cost  of  3.79  lbs.  of  gain 24%  cts. 


370  FEEDIITG   AKIMALS. 

This  makes  a  pound  live  weight  put  on  a  colt  during  the 
second  six  months  cost  6K  cents.  If  we  can  raise  good 
colts  at  this  price  for  food,  then  horse-raising  must  be  prof- 
itable. It  is  not  claimed  that  this  experiment  establishes 
this  cost  accurately,  but,  in  connection  with  the  French 
experiments,  it  may  be  considered  an  approximation.  It  is 
quite  reasonable  to  suppose,  from  present  indications,  that 
the  farmers  of  the  United  States  are  to  find  as  profitable  a 
market  for  horses  in  Europe  as  for  cattle;  and  thus  this 
subject  becomes  one  of  great  importance. 

The  foal  will  be  affected  favorably  or  unfavorably  by  the 
liberal  or  illiberal  treatment  of  the  dam  before  parturition, 
as  well  as  the  treatment  of  the  dam  and  foal  after  the  birth 
of  the  latter.  The  summer  pasture  furnished  mares  and 
foals  should  contain  shelter  against  sun  and  rain.  Open 
sheds  are  best,  although  trees  with  thick  foliage  will  answer 
every  purpose.  But  care  must  be  taken  that  these  wood 
pastures  are  not  covered  with  logs  upon  which  the  foals 
may  be  injured.  An  open  wood,  by  its  cool  shade,  is  favor- 
able as  a  pasture,  but  it  should  be  so  cleaned  up  as  to 
obviate  all  danger  of  injury  to  foals.  The  young  foal  is 
easily  injured  and  an  unsoundness  inflicted.  A  prudent 
foresight  should  guard  at  least  against  probable  dangers. 
When  the  dam  and  foal  are  kept  in  stable  it  should  not 
only  be  warm  and  comfortable,  but  well  lighted.  Light  is 
most  important  to  young  animal-s,  and,  in  fact,  to  all  ani- 
mals. If  the  dam  be  fed  generously  during  pregnancy  and 
whilst  nursing  the  foal,  and  the  foal  be  fed  as  we  have 
directed,  it  will  be,  in  development  and  weight,  equal  to  an 
ordinary  three-year-old  at  twenty-four  months. 

Exercise  for  Colts. 

These  young  things  are  inclined  to  be  playful  and  exer- 
cise their  muscles  liberally,  and  this,  under  proper  precau- 
tions,  should  be  encouraged.     Muscles  become  developed, 


FOOD   FOR   HORSES.  371 

and  acquire  strength  and  endurance  by  exercise.  These 
tender  things  will  of  course  only  lay  the  foundation  for  this 
development  of  muscle  at  this  early  age.  Tliis  playful 
exercise  consumes  food  which  must  be  supplied  with  a  lib- 
eral hand,  for  this  exercise  is  necessary  to  the  value  of  the 
future  horse.  The  young  eagle  takes  frequent  short  circles 
around  its  home-nest,  preparatory  to  those  longer  flights 
with  pinions  nerved  against  the  fierce,  rude  blasts  over 
mountain  and  valley.  Nature's  process  of  educating  colt 
and  eaglet  is  very  similar.  Muscular  development,  great 
endurance  come  of  frequent  exercise.  The  foal  is  allowed 
to  travel  a  few  miles  with  the  dam  each  day,  after  a  month 
or  two  old,  to  give  gentle  exercise.  In  all  cases  care  is 
taken  not  to  heat  the  blood  of  the  dam,  and  the  moderate 
exercise  of  the  foal  in  following  her  is  a  benefit. 

Food  for  Horses. 

The  horse  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  our  domestic 
animals,  being  the  principal  draft  animal  on  the  farm,  in 
cities,  for  commercial  transshipment,  and  upon  public  roads. 
We  have  twelve  millions  of  horses  to  feed  and  care  for;  and 
a  knowledge  of  all  the  economies  in  their  maintenance  is  of 
the  highest  consideration.  Unfortunately,  science  has  not 
made  many  accurate  experiments  to  determine  the  proper 
feeding  standards  for  horses  under  the  various  purposes  for 
which  they  are  kept. 

Youatt  gives  the  proportion  of  the  ration  usually  em- 
ployed in  England  for  agricultural  cart-horses  as  8  pounds 
of  oats  and  2  of  beans,  added  to  20  pounds  of  chaff ;  and 
then  34  or  36  pounds  of  the  mixture  is  given  as  a  day's 
ration  to  moderate-sized  horses  (probably  of  about  1,400 
pounds'  weight),  on  hard  work.  This  chaff  is  hay  and 
straw — half  and  half— cut  togetlier.  And  in  this  case  they 
give  no  long  hay  at  night.  This  observing  author  says  of 
this   mixed   feed   (grain   and   chaff  together) :    "  By   this 


372  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

means  the  animal  is  compelled  to  chew  his  food ;  he  cannot 
waste  the  straw  or  hay ;  the  chaff  is  too  hard  and  too  sharp 
to  be  swallowed  without  sufficient  mastication  ;  and,  while 
he  is  forced  to  grind  that  down,  the  oats  and  beans  are 
ground  with  it,  and  yield  more  nourishment;  the  stomach 
is  more  slowly  filled,  and,  therefore,  acts  better  on  its  con- 
tents, and  is  not  so  likely  to  be  overloaded.  The  increased 
quantity  of  saliva  thrown  out  in  the  lengthened  maceration 
of  the  food  softens  it  and  makes  it  fit  for  digestion." 

He  recommends,  however,  that  the  oats  and  beans  should 
be  ground  and  mixed  with  the  chaff  after  slightly  moisten- 
ing it,  so  that  the  meal  will  not  separate  from  it,  but  must 
be  masticated  with  the  chaff.  This  practice  is  quite  gener- 
ally followed  by  the  English  farmers.  This  last  method  is 
what  they  call  manger  feeding,  and  they  give,  as  among 
the  advantages  of  this  system,  that  horses  can  completely 
masticate  their  food  in  a  much  shorter  time,  and  leave  so 
much  longer  time  for  rest. 

The  author  has  often  urged  the  economy  of  this  system 
of  cutting  the  fodder  of  the  horse  and  mingling  the  ground 
grain  with  it;  and  this  has  become  the  basis  of  the  system 
in  operation  for  feeding  large  numbers  of  horses  on  stage, 
omnibus  and  railroad  lines,  both  in  this  country  and  in 
Europe. 

German   Experiments. 

Some  recent  experiments  have  been  made,  under  the 
direction  of  Dr.  Wolff,  at  Hohenheim,  to  test  the  compara- 
tive digestibility  of  foods  by  the  horse  and  sheep ;  and, 
incidentally,  they  show  the  amount  of  food  required-by  the 
horse  experimented  upon.  Unfortunately  the  experiments 
were  all  made  upon  the  same  horse.  The  criticism  to 
which  German  experiments  are  most  liable  is  that  they  are 
generally  tried  on  too  limited  a  scale,  and  for  too  short 
periods,  to  fully  accomplish  the  purpose  intended ;  and  yet 
these  experiments  have  much  interest  on  account  of  the 


FEEDING    HORSES.  373 

great  care  In  their  execution,  they  throw  much  light  upon* 
the  comparative  economy  of  digestion  in  the  horse  and  sheep, 
or  between  the  ruminating  and  non-ruminatmg  animals. 
Dr  Armsby  translates  the  conclusions  arrived  at  by  Wolff, 
as  follows . 

1.  Meadow  hay  is  less  fully  digested  by  the  horse  than 
the  sheep,  the  difference  amounting  to  11  or  12  per  cent,  of 
the  dry  substance. 

2.  The  crude  albuminoids  of  the  hay  is  nearly  as  digest- 
ible by  the  horse  as  by  sheep.  In  the  better  qualities  of 
hay  experimented  upon,  the  difference  amounted  to  from 
4  to  6  per  cent,  of  the  total  amount ;  while,  m  some  of  the 
poorer  sorts,  more  was  digested  by  the  horse  than  by  the 
sheep. 

3.  Of  the  non-nitrogenous  constituents  of  hay,  the 
nitrogen-free  extract  is  slightly,  and  the  crude  fibre  consid- 
erably better  digested  by  the  sheep  than  by  the  horse.  As 
a  result,  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  portion  of  the  hay 
digested  is  narrower  m  the  case  of  the  horse  than  in  that  of 
sheep.  As  regards  fat,  all  the  experiments  gave  very  low 
results  for  this  nutrient,  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  consid- 
erable quantity  of  biliary  products,  etc.,  in  the  excrements. 

4.  In  two  kinds  of  lucerne  hay  the  nitrogenous  and 
nitrogen-free  extract  were  equally  well  digested  by  the 
horse  and  by  sheep,  while  the  crude  fibre  appeared  to  be 
relatively  better  digested  than  that  of  meadow  hay, 

5.  The  digestibility  of  winter  wheat  straw  was  found  to 
depend  somewhat  on  the  amount  of  mastication  it  received  ; 
but  in  general  to  be  small.  Under  ordinary  circumstances 
it  seems  to  be  hardly  half  as  well  digested  by  the  horse  as 
by  ruminants. 

6.  Concentrated  feeding  stuffs  (oats,  beans  and  maize, 
the  two  latter  soaked  with  water)  are  digested  to  the  same 
extent  by  the  horse  and  by  sheep. 


374  FEEDIN'G   AN"IMALS. 

The  result  of  the  experiments  on  concentrated  foods  and 
coarse  fodders  seems  to  be  borne  out  fully  by  practical  ex- 
perience in  this  country,  in  feeding  the  large  numbers  of 
horses  us«ed  for  hard  labor  on  street  railroads  and  omnibus 
lines,  and  with  the  practice  of  all  livery  men  in  cities  and 
towns.  It  IS  found  to  be  most  profitable  to  feed  only  from 
9  to  12  pounds  of  hay  per  day  to  each  horse,  and  the  rest 
of  the  ration  in  gram,  either  ground  or  whole.  The  ten- 
dency for  the  last  twenty  years  has  been  to  lessen  the  quan- 
tity of  hay  or  other  coarse  fodder,  while  the  oats  or  ground 
feed  has  been  increased. 

These  experiments  of  TVolff  show  pretty  clearly  why  the 
practice  has  taken  this  form.  The  concentrated  food  is 
better  digested  than  the  coarse  fodder,  after  a  certain 
amount  is  given.  It  requires  a  proportion  of  fibrous  food 
to  keep  horses  healthy  ;  and  from  25  to  40  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  weight  of  the  ration  for  a  work  horse  may  be  hay, 
and  this  will  be  economically  digested.  The  light  livery 
horse  usually  gets  8  to  10  pounds  of  hay  and  12  pounds  of 
oats;  but  the  work  horse  gets  12  pounds  of  hay  aud  16 
pounds  of  gram,  often  corn  and  oats  ground  together.  It 
IS  well  settled  in  practice  that  concentrated  food  is  cheap- 
est for  the  largest  proportion  of  the  ration  for  horses.  And 
this  appears  to  be  scientifically  explained  in  these  German 
experiments.  But  we  must  not  fail  to  gain  what  informa- 
tion these  experiments  afford  m  relation  to  the 

Standard  Ratiojt 

required  by  a  horse  of  given  weight.  The  harse  experi- 
mented upon  had  a  weight  varying  from  1,100  to  1,200 
lbs.,  and,  when  fed  on  hay  exclusively,  ate  from  22  to  273^ 
lbs.  per  day.     This  Avas  equal  to  from  19.4  to  24  lbs.  of  dry 


FEEDING  HORSES.  375 

food,  and  when  grain  was  also  fed,  the  largest  amount  of 
dry  matter  was  25  lbs. 

The  experiments  upon  this  one  horse  would  indicate 
that  20  to  25  lbs.  of  dry  matter  is  a  full  ration  for  a  horse 
of  1,200  lbs-  weight.  Dr.  Wol£f  found,  during  these  experi- 
ments, that  sheep  consumed,  per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight, 
31.25  lbs.  of  hay,  having  27.2  lbs.  of  dry  matter.  Some 
have  interpreted  this  to  mean  that  ruminants  consume 
much  more  per  weight  than  non-ruminants— as  the  sheep 
have  consumed  30.7  per  cent,  more,  per  weight,  than  the 
horse — but  this  is  probably  an  erroneous  conclusion,  for  a 
proper  consideration  of  the  difference  in  the  size  of  the 
animals  may  account  for  a  large  part  of  this  greater  con- 
sumption by  the  sheep.  It  would  take  six  large  or  eight 
moderate-sized  sheep  to  equal  this  horse  in  weight.  Ex- 
periment has  very  clearly  shown  that  large  animals  eat  less, 
per  weight,  than  smaller  ones  of  the  same  species;  that  is, 
a  horse  weighing  1,G00  lbs.  will  eat  less  than  two  horses  of 
800  lbs.  weight;  or  two  cows  of  1,200  lbs.  weight,  each  will 
eat  less  than  three  of  800  lbs.  weight  each.  This  is 
accounted  for  by  greater  surface  for  radiation  of  heat  in 
the  smaller  animals,  causing  a  greater  consumption  of 
respiratory  food.  But  it  is  also  probable  that  this  horse 
was  individually  peculiar  in  the  small  consumption  of  food. 
And  the  following  table,  containing  a  summary  of  these 
experiments,  shows  that  this  horse  often  took  insufficient 
nutrition  to  keep  his  normal  weight.  This  table  is  instruc- 
tive, as  showing  the  amount  of  food  digested,  the  work 
performed,  and  the  changes  m  live  weight.  The  work  per- 
formed by  the  horse  is  represented  in  kilogramme-metres; 
an  ordinary  day's  work  being  estimated  at  1,500,000 
kilogramme-metres. 


376 


FEEDING  ANIMALS. 
Light  Work. 


^ 

6 

Digested 

Per  Day. 

43 

2    „• 

"5 

.  « 

'C 

p^ 

1^ 

> 

li 

o 
1   1 

o 
>1 

03 
'S 

.9 
S 
1 

1 

>> 
1 

1 

utritive  ratio 

> 

tS: 

^ 

13 

« 

< 

^ 

c3 

lbs. 

•^ 

o 

diiys 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs 

lbs 

475,000 

62 

1,078 

18  6 

1.3 

0.4 

7  9 

9.6 

6  9 

-1  0 

475.000 

28 

1,157 

24  0 

1  8 

0  4 

10.5 

12.7 

6.4 

0  0 

600,000 

14 

1.197 

18  5 

14 

0.1 

7  2 

8.7 

5  6 

-2  0 

000,000 

14 

1,151 

16.7 

2  0 

0.1 

6  7 

8  8 

3  4 

-3  3 

600,000 

56 

1,093 

21.3 

3  1 

0  1 

8.8 

12.0 

3  0 

GO 

600,000 

25 

1,034 

24  '< 

4  0 

0.1 

10  9 

15  0 

2  8 

+  11 

600,000 

80 

1,065 

25  0 

3  3 

0  2 

12  3 

15  8 

3  9 

+  1  0 

600,000 

39 

1,146 

24  9 

22 

0.4 

13  4 

16  0 

6  5 

+  2.1 

Ordinary 

Work 

1,108.000 

40 

1,120 

24  0 

1.8 

0  4 

10  8 

13  0 

6  7 

^1.4 

1,800,000 

30 

1,010 

21.4 

3  9 

0  1 

8  7 

11.8 

3  0 

-2  8 

The  experiments  with  light  work  show  the  amount  of 
food  required  to  sustain  a  horse  of  this  weight  under  such 
circumstances,  showing  a  loss  in  weight  when  the  amount 
of  dry  food  digested  fell  under  12  lbs.,  and  when  it  exceeded 
13  lbs.  there  was  a  gain  in  weight.  But  when  the  horse 
was  put  at  ordinary  work  he  lost  1.4  lbs.  per  day  on  13 
lbs.  of  nutriments  utilized,  and  under  heavier  work,  with 
slightly  less  food,  lost  2.8  lbs.  per  day.  The  great  omission 
here  is  that  a  full  ration  for  heavy  work,  or  even  average 
work,  was  not  given,  and  therefore  it  does  not  appear  what 
ration  would  have  been  sufficient  to  keep  his  normal  weight 
under  full  Avork.  It  is  probable,  that  under  the  7th  and 
8th  rations  for  light  work,  with  which  he  gained  from  1  to 
2  lbs.  per  day,  would  have  sustained  him  under  heavy  work. 
These  experiments  seem  to  have  been  tried,  primarily,  to 
determine  the  digestibility  of  the  foods,  but  they  might 
have  been  made  equally  valuable  also  in  the  determining 
the  proper  standard  for  work. 


FEEDING   HORSES. 

Dr.  Wolif  recommends  the  following: 

Feeding  Standards  for  Horses, 
Per  1,000  lbs.  Live   Weight 


377 


Digestible. 

G 

>> 

>i  • 

<D 

5 

Ml 

•C 

C 

— 

«"« 

■^ 

"s 

^ 

< 

o 

fe 

^ 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Licht  work 

21.0 
22.5 

1.5 
1.8 

9.1 
11.2 

0.3 
0.6 

6.5 

Ordinary  work 

7.0 

Heavy  work 

25.5 

2.8 

13.4 

0.8 

5.5 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  these  experiments  could  not 
have  been  tested  upon  at  least  five  horses,  so  that  their 
teaching  could  have  been  given  a  confident,  general 
application. 

Practical  Rations. 

We  shall  now  consider  the  practical  rations  established 
in  this  country,  as  applied  to  large  numbers  of  horses 
devoted  to  special  work.  The  establishment  of  street 
railroads  in  cities  has  given  steady  and  exacting  emjolo}'- 
ment  to  many  thousands  of  horses.  The  cost  of  feeding 
so  many  animals  has  been  the  large  item  which  has  called 
for  careful  study  to  determine  the  most  economical  ration 
consistent  with  highest  efficiency  of  service.  Many 
experiments  were  made  with  various  kinds  of  grain,  and 
various  methods  of  preparing  the  ration.  Hay  was  fed 
long,  and  the  grain,  ground  or  whole,  fed  alone;  but  it  was 
soon  found  that  much  more  long  hay  was  required  than 
when  cut  into  short  lengths,  and  the  ground  grain  fed 
upon  the  hay.  Their  experience  was  similar  to  that  of 
the  London  Omnibus  Company,  many  years  ago.  This 
company  had    6,000  horses,   and  determined   to   test   the 


378  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

relative  value  of  cut  and  uncut  hay,  as  well  as  ground 
and  unground  grain.  To  this  end,  3,000  horses  were  fed 
ground  oats,  cut  hay,  and  straw;  and  3,000  were  fed  upon 
uncut  hay  and  unground  oats.  The  allowance  to  the  first 
Avas — ground  oats,  16  lbs.;  cut  hay,  7%  lbs.;  cut  straw,  2H 
lbs.  To  the  second  was  allowed — unground  oats,  19  lbs.; 
uncut  hay,  13  lbs.  The  horses  which  had  2G  lbs.  of  ground 
oats,  cut  straw,  and  hay,  did  the  same  work  as  well,  and 
kej^t  in  as  good  condition,  as  those  that  had  32  lbs.  of 
unground  oats  and  uncut  hay.  This  was  a  saving  of  G  lbs. 
per  day  on  the  feed  of  each  horse,  and  was  estimated  at 
5  cents  per  day,  per  horse,  or  $300  per  day  upon  the  6,000 
horses.  This  was  demonstrating  the  economy  of  machinery 
over  horse  muscle  in  the  mastication  of  food.  These 
figures  have  a  significance  that  would  not  attach  to  an 
experiment  with  a  few  horses.  The  result  of  a  ration 
applied  to  3,000  horses  must  be  accepted  as  an  unques- 
tionable fact.  In  this  it  is  a  great  contrast  to  the  German 
experiments  upon  a  single  animal.  The  real  advantage 
was  not  all  in  saving  animal  muscle  in  cutting  and  grind- 
ing; but  the  grinding  reduced  the  grain  to  finer  particles 
than  the  horse  would  masticate  it;  and,  besides  this,  it 
assisted  the  hard-worked  animal  in  eating  its  meals  in  so 
much  less  time;  and  this,  giving  so  much  more  time  to 
rest,  would  have  a  favorable  eflfect  upon  its  condition. 

The  ration  of  thousands  of  horses  on  street  railroads  in 
this  country  has,  finally,  been  fixed  upon  the  same  princi- 
ples. The  ration  for  summer  is  half  oats  and  half  corn, 
ground  together,  16  lbs.  to  each  horse,  with  12  lbs.  of 
cut  hay.  In  winter,  16  lbs.  of  corn-meal,  with  the  same 
amount  of  hay,  forms  the  ration.  Corn-meal  alone,  in 
summer  is  too  heating;  but,  in  winter,  the  corn-meal 
seems  well  adapted  to  keeping  up  animal  heat  and  con- 
dition, and,  being  cheaper  than  oats,  is  generally  adopted 
in  New  York  City;  but  in  many  other  cities  half  oats  is 


FEEDING   HORSES.  379 

used  the  year  round.  If  these  companies  would  substitute 
clover  hay  for  timothy,  corn-meal  would  make  a  well- 
balanced  ration.  The  clover  would  make  up  for  the 
deficiency  of  the  corn-meal  in  muscle-sustaining  food. 
Clover  is  rejected  because  it  is  liable  to  be  dusty,  which 
may  develop  heaves;  but  this  fear  is  groundless  under  the 
plan  now  adopted  of  moistening  the  cut  hay  and  mixing 
the  meal  with  it.  It  is  fed  in  a  damp  condition,  and, 
therefore,  no  dust  can  be  present  to  affect  the  lung.  Clover 
hay  is  not  properly  appreciated  as  a  food  for  horses.  It  has 
a  higher  value  than  timothy,  and  is  usually  sold  82  to  S3 
per  ton  lower  in  market. 

There  are,  probably,  fifty  thousand  horses  fed  in  our 
cities,  for  railroad  and  omnibus  lines,  on  a  ration  very 
similar  to  these  described.  And  if  we  go  back  forty  years, 
we  find  that  the  Germans  and  Hungarians  fed  a  ration 
very  similar. 

Mr.  C.  L.  Fleischman  gives  the  ration  used  upon  the 
manor  of  Alcsuth,  in  Hungary,  about  1840.  Horses  at 
labor  were  fed  12  quarts  of  heavy  oats,  6  lbs.  of  hay,  4  lbs. 
of  oat-straw,  and  5  lbs.  of  steamed  chaff.  This  is  very 
similar  to  the  London  Omnibus  Company's  ration,  being 
about  the  same  weight  as  the  ground  oats,  but  less  valuable, 
because  unground;  yet  the  steamed  chaff  would  compensate 
for  this. 

The  ration  of  all  corn-meal  and  hay  is  not  to  be  approved, 
except  in  winter,  and  not  wholly  then.  The  horse  is  used 
simply  for  his  muscle,  and  corn  is  especially  a  fattening 
food,  and  not  the  best  tp  replace  wasted  muscle.  It  is 
most  admirably  adapted  as  a  respiratory  food — producing 
animal  heat  and  fat — and  requires  to  be  combined  with 
more  nitrogenous  food.  And  a  careful  examination  of  the 
facts  relating  to  the  health  and  durability  of  horses,  where 
corn-meal  is  fed  almost  wholly  for  grain,  will  show  that 
they  do  not   last   so   long   as  where  oats  are  fed  for  the 


380  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

wliole  or  half  of  the  ration.  The  heating  nature  of  corn 
will  cause  horses  to  perspire  more  easily,  and  thus  subject 
them  to  the  dangers  of  many  diseases.  This  heating  food 
is  also  a  fruitful  cause  of  diseases  of  the  feet,  which  soon 
disable  horses  upon  city  pavements.  The  New  York  and 
Brooklyn  car  companies  say  that  the  average  usefulness 
of  a  horse  to  them  is  four  years.  This  is  quite  too  short  a 
time,  if  all  the  proper  conditions  of  food  and  care  are 
observed.  These  companies  feed  principally  upon  corn- 
meal,  and  sometimes  the  year  round  wholly  upon  corn  as 
the  grain  food.  There  are  other  cities,  employing  300  or 
more  car  horses,  that  feed  half  oats  and  half  corn,  ground 
together,  upon  12  lbs.  of  hay,  the  average  usefulness  of 
whose  horses  is  six  years.  It  is  also  found  that  horses 
which  have  been  raised  largely  upon  corn  are  too  tender- 
footed  to  stand  city  pavement.  It  is  for  this  reason  that 
Canada  horses  are  preferred  for  street-car  service;  they 
having  been  raised  upon  grass,  oats,  roots  and  peas.  Corn 
is  the  standard  food  for  beef  raising;  but  not  for  build- 
ing up  the  best  horse  muscle  and  bone  in  rearing  colts,  or 
as  an  exclusive  grain  diet  for  hard  work.  Western  horse 
raisers  should  study  this  question  of  the  effect  of  an  exces- 
sive corn  ration  upon  the  stamina  of  their  young  horses. 
Oats  and  barley  should  furnish  the  grain  food  for  their 
colts.  Corn  may  properly  enter  into  every  ration  for  work ; 
and  we  shall  soon  consider  the  various  combinations  that 
may  be  made  with  corn  as  the  basis  of  the  ration. 

As  has  been  seen  horses  digest  concentrated  food,  such 
as  grain,  when  that  forms  part  of  the  ration,  better  than 
coarse  fodder,  when  that  forms  the  whole  ration.  And  it 
is  at  this  point  that  we  wish  to  give  a  short  discussion  of 
the  necessity  for 

Bulky  Food 
as  part  of  the  ration  for  the  horse.    We  have  incidentally 
referred  to  this  before,  but  it  requires  a  separate  and  special 


FEEDING  HORSES.  381 

consideration,  as  it  does  not  seem  to  be  clearly  understood 
even  by  some  veterinarians  of  high  standing.  For  in- 
stance. Dr.  Spooner,  of  England,  in  discussing  rations  for 
horses,  in  Morton's  ''  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture,"  after 
speaking  of  the  small  comparative  size  of  the  stomach  of 
the  horse,  says :  ''It  seems  evident  that  he  was  intended 
by  nature  to  consume  concentrated  food,  such  as  grain; 
and  the  formation  of  the  molar  teeth  strongly  corroborates 
this  view  of  the  matter.  These  molar  teeth,  tr  grinders, 
as  they  are  very  expressively  termed,  are  broader  and  less 
cutting  than  those  of  the  ox,  but  decidedly  better  adapted 
for  grinding  corn,  as  in  a  mill ;  for  the  teeth  of  the  upper 
and  lower  jaw  do  not  exactly  correspond,  but  the  teeth  of 
the  latter  are  narrower,  as  well  as  the  jaw  itself,  so  that  the 
lower  jaw  is  moved  from  side  to  side,  and  the  grain  is  thus 
triturated  aud  ground  as  between  two  millstones." 

From  this  he  concludes  that  "  such  poor,  bulky  food  as 
straw  or  roots  is  unwholesome  and  innutritions  as  a  diet 
for  working  horses,  as  unwholesome  as  for  man  to  live 
entirely  upon  potatoes." 

This  view  is  certainly  reasonable ;  and  then  he  goes  on 
to  speak  of  good  hay  being  the  cheapest  food  for  horses, 
considering  its  nutriment,  but  that  it  is  too  bulky  as  a 
complete  ration  for  labor.  Oats,  he  finds  dearer,  but  con- 
taining just  the  nutriment  to  sustain  and  replace  muscle 
wasted  in  labor.  Beans  are  still  more  concentrated  than 
oats,  and  contain  a  larger  proportion  of  muscle-sustaining 
food,  and  are  cheaper ;  but  if  given  freely  are  too  heating 
and  stimulating,  and  are  apt  to  produce  inflammatory 
swellings  of  the  limbs.  Beans  may  be  given  in  combina- 
tion with  oats— one-third  beans  and  two-thirds  oats.  IK* 
says  it  has  been  proposed  to  overcome  the  too  concentrated 
and  heating  nature  of  beans  by  feeding  with  bran :  that 
beans  are  astringent  and  bran  laxative,  so  far  as  they 
supply  each  other's  deficiencies,  but  closely  resemble  each 


382  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

other  in  abundance  of  albuminous  elements ;  and  both  are 
deficient  in  starch,  etc.  He  tried  the  experiment  of  sub- 
stituting a  bushel  of  beans  and  a  bushel  of  bran  for  two 
bushels  of  oats,  but  he  soon  found  that  the  horses  did  not 
do  so  well  on  this  diet. 

This  is  the  substance  of  his  explanation.  It  appears 
evident  that  he  did  not  quite  see  that  the  bean-and-bran 
ration  lacked  husk  or  woody  fibre  to  make  a  proportional 
bulk  to  the  nutriment  contained.  Oats  contain  as  much 
bulk  of  fibre  as  of  concentrated  meal  when  ground,  and 
therefore,  when  masticated,  the  food  goes  into  the  stomach 
in  a  light,  porous  condition,  and  the  gastric  fluid  can  pass 
freely  through  it  and  act  upon  every  part  at  once,  while 
the  bean-meal  and  bran  would  form  a  more  compact  mass, 
and  the  gastric  fluid  could  not  so  completely  act  upon  it, 
and  the  result  is  the  inflammatory  swellings  which  he 
mentions.  The  result  was  not  caused  by  the  defective 
nutrition  contained  in  the  food,  but  from  its  compact 
nature.  The  horse's  digestive  organs  are  adapted  to  a 
larger  proportion  of  concentrated  food  than  those  of  the 
ox,  but  cannot  be  healthy  upon  concentrated  food  alone. 
In  a  state  of  nature  the  horse  is  nourished  upon  the 
grasses,  and  it  must  have  a  proportion  (at  least  one-half  in 
bulk)  of  fibrous  food;  and  this  fibrous  food  must  be 
mingled  with  the  concentrated,  so  as  to  render  the  food  as 
it  goes  into  the  stomach  porous.  This  is  the  significance 
of  bulk  in  food.  It  is  quite  true  that  the  horse  must  have 
a  ration  well  balanced  in  all  the  constituents  required  to 
keep  up  animal  heat  and  to  supply  the  natural  waste  of  the 
system,  but  this  ration  must  also  be  so  made  up,  mechani- 
cally, that  the  digesting  fluid  can  properly  ax3t  upon  it. 
Inattention  to  this  point  has  been,  perhaps,  the  most 
fruitful  cause  of  all  his  ills.  In  the  use  of  bean-meal  as  a 
grain  ration,  if  Dr.  Spooner  had  mixed  this  bean-meal  with 
three  times  its  bulk  of  cut  hay,  all  danger  from  its  con- 


FEEDING  HOESES.  383 

centrated  nature  would  have  been  avoided.  This  is  not 
theory  ;  we  have  thoroughly  tested  pea-meal  (a  food  almost 
exactly  similar,  chemically)  by  feeding  horses  under  heavy 
work  upon  16  lbs.  of  pea-meal,  mixed  and  fed  with  one 
bushel  of  cut  hay,  the  hay  being  moistened  so  that  the 
pea-meal  would  adhere  to  the  hay  and  all  be  eaten  together. 
Long  hay  was  given  in  addition,  making  about  12  lbs,  of 
hay.  Four  horses  were  thus  fed  for  four  months,  per- 
forming full  daily  labor.  The  average  weight  of  the 
horses  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  was  1,050  lbs., 
and  at  the  end,  1,065  lbs.  We  carefully  watched  the  con- 
dition and  health  of  the  horses,  and  found  both  quite 
satisfactory.  There  was  no  indication  of  a  feverish  state  of 
the  system,  or  any  disturbance  of  the  digestive  functions, 
and  the  appetite  remained  very  uniform  with  every  appear- 
ance of  content.  We  should  have  continued  this  ration 
indefinitely  but  for  the  higher  price  of  peas  than  of  corn 
and  oats. 

If  we  examine  this  ration  of  pea-meal  and  hay,  we  find 
it  well  adapted  to  heavy  work — the  digestible  albuminoids 
being  3.82  lbs.,  carbo-hydrates  13.91  lbs.,  and  fat  .44  lbs. — 
the  entire  digestible  nutrients  amounting  to  18.17  lbs., 
with  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:4.  This  is  slightly  deficient  in 
fat,  with  an  excess  of  muscle-forming  matter ;  but  we  regard 
it  as  better  than  Wolff's  ration  for  heavy  work,  given  on 
page  377.  The  fact  that  the  horses  made  a  slight  gain  in 
weight  proved  that  the  extra  muscle-forming  food  was  well 
applied.  But  the  principal  object  was  to  determine  the 
effect  of  mixing  this  concentrated  food  with  hay  to  give 
bulk  and  a  porous  condition  to  the  food  in  the  stomach. 
This  effect  was  emphasized  from  an  opposite  experiment, 
tried  at  the  same  time,  by  a  neighbor  who  did  not  think  it 
made  any  difference  whether  the  pea-meal  was  mixed  with 
the  hay  or  fed  separately,  with  the  hay  given  uncut.  He 
also  fed  four  horses,  of  about  the  same  weight  as  those  in 


384  FEEDING  ANIMALS. 

my  experiment.  His  were  engaged  in  lumbering,  and 
often  hauled  heavy  loads.  He  fed  16  lbs.  of  pea-meal  per 
horse,  in  three  feeds.  Within  six  weeks  two  of  his  horses 
had  severe  attacks  of  colic,  and  both  of  the  others  had  to 
be  treated  for  constipation.  The  writer  then  prevailed 
upon  him  to  feed  the  pea-meal  with  one  bushel  of  cut  hay, 
in  the  manner  above  stated,  and  in  a  few  weeks  they  were 
all  in  apparent  health  and  able  to  do  efficient  work.  The 
effect  was  so  favorable,  that  he  continued  to  feed  meal — 
whether  of  peas,  corn  or  other  grain,  mixed  with  cut  hay 
— and  told  the  author  that  he  never  had  a  case  of  colic 
afterwards. 

Corn-meal  for  Horses. 

Corn-meal  has  long  been  a  staple  food  for  horses,  as  well 
as  other  stock  in  the  United  States,  and  is  now  largely 
purchased  in  England  and  Europe  as  a  part  of  the  ration 
for  work-horses.  It  is  quite  as  concentrated  as  bean-meal, 
and  more  heating  in  its  nature,  because  it  has  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  carbo-hydrates  than  beans,  peas,  oats  or  barley, 
and  is  comparatively  deficient  in  muscle-forming  elements. 
Corn,  when  ground  into  fine  meal  (the  best  condition  for 
feeding)  and  moistened,  becomes  very  plastic  and  adheres 
into  a  solid  mass,  not  easily  penetrated  by  any  liquid. 
When  corn-meal  is  masticated  by  a  horse  it  becomes  satu- 
rated with  saliva  and  takes  the  form  of  a  plastic  adhesive 
mass,  and  in  this  form  goes  into  the  stomach  of  the  horse. 
It  is  obvious  that  the  muscular  movements  of  the  stomach 
can  only  move  or  roll  this  mass  about,  but  cannot  separate 
or  loosen  its  particles  so  as  to  render  it  sufficiently  porous 
for  the  circulation  and  operation  of  the  gastric  juice.  It 
is  for  this  reason  that  whole  corn,  or  that  coarsely  ground, 
may  be  fed  alone  to  a  horse  with  less  danger  of  colic  or 
other  diseases  induced  by  a  fevered  stomach,  because  in  the 
form  of  cracked  kernels  it  cannot  adhere  into  such  a  solid, 
plastic  mass,  and  what  is  not  digested  will  be  passed  m  the 


FEEDING   HORSES.  385 

droppings.  But  as  the  object  of  grinding  is  to  reduce  the 
grain  to  such  fine  particles  that  the  digesting  fluid  may 
saturate  and  completely  act  upon  it  in  the  shortest  time, 
the  value  of  grinding  is  in  proportion  to  the  fineness  of 
division.  And  when  this  finelj^-ground  corn-meal  is  mixed 
with  a  little  more  than  half  its  weight,  but  several  times 
its  bulk,  of  cut  hay,  as  above  described,  this  fibrous  hay  so 
completely  separates  the  particles  of  meal  as  to  form  a 
spongy,  porous  mass,  that  fluids  will  pass  through  freely. 
When  the  horse  masticates  the  meal  he  also  masticates  the 
hay,  and  the  whole  goes  into  the  stomach  together.  This 
seems  to  be  in  imitation  of  nature,  for  when  the  horse  eats 
grain  or  ripened  grass  in  its  natural  state,  he  eats  the  stalk 
with  the  seed.  When  man,  therefore,  separates  the  grain 
for  the  purpose  of  grinding  or  making  a  more  economical 
use  of,  he  should  again  mix  it  with  fibrous  food,  that  the 
horse  may  not  sufi"er  from  too  concentrated  a  food. 

And,  as  we  have  seen,  the  street  railroad  companies  and 
omnibus  lines  have  discovered  the  necessity  of  remiugling 
the  grain  with  coarse  fodder.  These  great  practical  ex- 
amples are  sufiicient  authority  for  the  practice,  but  we 
thought  it  important  to  give  the  reasons  on  which  the 
practice  is  founded. 

Indian  corn  is  the  great  food  crop  for  animals  in  this 
country,  and  is  produced  in  nearly  every  county  of  every 
State,  and  probably  more  cases  of  horse  colic  arise  from 
feeding  corn-meal  than  from  all  other  foods  combined;  and 
this  especially  occurs  among  farm  horses,  because  farmers 
study  the  philosophy  of  foods  very  little,  or  the  eflect  of 
condition  in  foods  upon  animal  health.  They  feed  what 
is  most  convenient  and  cheapest,  without  considering  that 
any  good  food  can  be  other  than  healthy.  W^e  have  known 
of  the  death  of  at  least  a  dozen  horses  which,  on  examina- 
tion, proved  to  be  caused  by  feeding  corn-meal  alone. 
Some  feed  wet  and  others  dry.  But,  when  fed  alone,  it  is 
more  dangerous  wet  than  dry,  because  the  wet  meal  may 


386  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

be  swallowed  with  very  little  mastication,  while  the  dry 
meal  must  be  masticated  till  the  saliva  saturates  it  before 
it  can  be  swallowed,  and  the  saliva  assists  digestion.  It  is, 
therefore,  in  better  condition  for  digestion  when  fed  dry 
than  wet.  But  four  of  those  who  had  lost  horses  by 
feeding  meal  alone,  when  they  changed  the  system  and 
fed  the  meal  upon  cut  hay,  moistened,  so  that  both  must 
be  eaten  together,  had  no  further  losses  or  even  illness  of 
their  horses. 

In  our  exjoerience  of  about  thirty  years  in  feeding  work 
horses,  no  ill  effects  have  arisen  from  feeding  corn-meal, 
ground  as  fine  as  burr  millstones  can  properly  do  it,  when 
mixed  with  cut  hay  or  straw.  We  have  had  cases  of  colic, 
but  it  was  always  traced  to  carelessness  of  the  feeder  and 
violation  of  orders  in  not  mixing  the  meal  with  cut  hay. 
We  have  fed  horses,  from  four  years  old  to  twenty,  upon 
various  concentrated  grains,  ground  into  fine  meal,  and  they 
were  always  in  good  health  when  the  rule  of  mixing  fine 
meal  with  cut  hay  or  straw  was  strictly  adhered  to. 

The  following  fatal  case  occurred  :  In  our  absence  an 
acquaintance  called,  on  his  return  from  a  pleasant  drive  of 
a  hundred  miles  west,  in  June.  Putting  his  fine,  sixteen- 
hand,  iron-gray  horse  into  the  barn,  piloted  only  by  a  little 
boy  of  seven,  he  was  proceeding  to  give  his  horse  a  good, 
round  measure  of  fine  corn-meal,  when  the  boy  warned 
him  that  it  would  make  his  horse  sick  if  he  did  not  mix  it 
with  cut  hay;  and  be  replied,  "1  w411  risk  it."  Starting 
an  hour  later  to  drive,  eight  miles,  he  was  scarcely  able  to 
get  his  horse  that  distance,  and  he  died  before  morning. 
Speaking  of  it  afterwards,  he  said:  ^'The  boy  warned 
me,  but  I  was  not  humble  enough  to  learn  wisdom  from 
babes,  and  I  lost  my  horse."  But  he  consoled  himself 
with  the  reflection  that  this  experience  saved  him  other 
horses  afterwards. 

The  universality  of  corn  everywhere,  and  its  excellent 
quality  as  a  fattening  food  and  for  keeping  horses  with 


FEEDING   HORSES. 


387 


light  work,  ifc  becomes  a  matter  of  great  importance  that 
horse  owners  should  study  the  best  use  of  this  food,  and 
how  to  combine  it  with  other  foods.  As  we  have  often  said, 
Indian  corn  is  deficient  in  muscle-sustaining  food,  and  the 
skill  of  the  feeder  consists  in  combining  this  with  other 
grains  or  feeding  stuffs  that  are  rich  in  the  elements  in 
which  corn  is  deficient.  We  can  better  point  out  these 
combinations  after  giving  a  table  of  the  analyses  of  the  dif- 
ferent grains  and  by-products  used  in  different  parts  of  the 
country  as  food  for  horses,  to  which  *we  add  the  different 
grasses  used  as  hay,  and  some  straw. 


Foods. 


Meadow  hay,  average 

Clover,  red,  average 

Timothy,  averaere 

Hungarian,  average 

Alsike  clover    

Pea-hay,  iu  blossom 

Early  meadow  {Poa  annua) 

Orchard  grass,  in  blossom  

Blue  grass  {Poa  j>ra(ensis) 

Corn-fodder,  good 

Rye-straw 

Oat-straw 

Barley-straw 

Wheat-straw 

Corn  (Western  yellow) 

Corn  (Southern  white) 

Corn-sugar  meal 

Wheat  middlings 

Rye-bran 

Malt  sprouts 

Linseed-cake 

Linseed-meal  (new  process) 

'  Cotton-seed  meal,  decorticated 

Linseed  (flax-seed) 

Cotton-seed  (decorticated) 

Rye 


Barley 

Oata    

Millet 

Buckwheat 

Peas 

Beans.   ..  .. 
Vetch 


Digestible 
Nutrients. 


14.3 
16.0 
14.3 
13.4 
1G.7 
16.7 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
27.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
13.0 
12.7 
72.2 
11.4 
12.9 
11.6 

9.1 
10.7 

7.2 
12.3 

7.7 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.0 
14.0 
14.3 
14.5 
14.3 


5.4 

7.0 

5.8 

6.1 

8.4 

8.7 

6.0 

6.9 

5.9 

3.2 

0.8 

1.4 

1.3 

0.8 

7.5 

8.2 

3.2 

10.0 

10.6 

20.8 

27.6 

29.9 

33.2 

17.2 

17.1 

9.9 

8.0 

9.0 

9.5 

6.8 

20.2 

23.0 

24.0 


41.0 
38.1 
43.4 
41.0 
32.1 
35.6 
42.5 
40.3 
40.0 
43.4 
36.5 
41.1 
40.6 
36.0 
67.3 
68.8 
19.3 
48.5 
50.0 
43.7 
27.0 
31.0 
17.6 
18.9 
14.7 
65.4 
58.9 
43.3 
45.0 
47.0 
55.4 
50.2 
48.2 


1.0 
1.2 
1.4 
0.9 
1.9 
1.8 
2.1 
1.9 
1.6 
1.0 
0.4 
0.7 
0.5 
0.4 
3.1 
3.1 
1.8 
3.1 
2.3 
0.9 
10.4 
2.56 
16.2 
35.2 
27.3 
1.6 
1.7 
4.7 
2.6 
1.2 
1.7 
1.4 
2.5 


8  0 
5.9 
8.1 
7.1 
4.2 
4.6 
7.9 
6.5 
7.5 
14.4 
46.9 
29.9 
32  2 
46.3 
10.0 
9.2 
7.4 
5.6 
5.3 
2.2 
2.0 
1  2 
18 
6.0 
4.6 
7.0 
7.9 
6.1 
5.4 
7.4 
2.9 
2.3 
2.2 


Value. 


8 

^^ 

u 

tf  >. 

'^ao 

•oja 

-■^ 

II 

=  2 

E  « 

P 

OS 

0.64 

1.00 

0.69 

1.08 

0.69 

1.09 

0.66 

1.04 

0.73 

1.14 

0.77 

1.20 

0.74 

1.16 

0.94 

1.16 

0.68 

1.06 

0.57 

0.91 

0.35 

0.55 

0.44 

0.69 

0.44 

0.68 

0.37 

0.58 

1.04 

1.62 

1.09 

1.67 

0.39 

0.60 

1.01 

1.58 

1.00 

1.56 

1.23 

2.08 

1.89 

2.98 

1.69 

2.64 

2.30 

3.60 

2.44 

3.81 

2.06 

3.21 

1.08 

1.68 

0.95 

1.47 

0.98 

1.53 

0.93 

1.45 

0.77 

1.19 

1.44 

2.25 

I.'jI 

2.26 

1.63 

2.53 

388  FEEDIi^G   ANIMALS. 

We  give  in  the  above  table  only  the  amount  of  digestible 
constituents,  as  these  constitute  the  value  of  a  food.  This 
table  contains  nearly  everything  fed  to  horses.  Malt 
sprouts  are  not  often  used  as. horse  feed;  but  there  is  no 
reason  why  they  should  not  be.  They  are  usually  in  a 
dusty  condition,  and  this  may  be  the  reason  why  horse 
feeders  have  not  made  use  of  them;  but  as  it  is  customary 
to  soak  malt-sprouts  before  feeding  them  to  cattle,  they  are 
then  in  a  proper  condition  to  feed  horses.  Malt  sprouts 
are  also  somewhat  bulky,  and  when  mixed  with  corn-meal 
will  make  that  less  concentrated.  If  malt  sprouts  are 
used,  the  proportion  may  be  11  lbs.  corn-meal,  5  lbs.  sprouts, 
and  12  lbs.  timothy  ha}^  The  corn-meal  and  sprouts  may 
be  soaked  for  six  or  more  hours,  and  then  mixed  with  one 
bushel  of  cut  hay.  Cut  hay  weighs  7  to  9  lbs.  per  bushel. 
The  other  3  lbs.  of  hay  may  be  given  uncut.  Even  poor 
hay  or  straw  may  be  used  in  this  ration,  because  of  the 
large  proportion  of  muscle-forming  matter.  The  vetcb,  of 
which  an  analysis  is  given,  is  not  much  raised  in  this 
country,  but  is  in  portions  of  Canada,  and  the  future  is 
likely  to  see  it  extensively  cultivated  over  large  portions 
of  the  Western  States,  to  which  it  is  well  adapted,  and  is 
important  as  a  food  to  balance  the  deficiencies  of  corn. 
We  will  now  give  several  practical  rations  in  which  corn 
forms  a  part,  and  give  the  rations  in  detail,  so  as  to  show 
our  readers  how  to  make  up  rations  from  the  table. 

These  rations  represent  a  few  only  of  the  almost  end- 
less combinations  of  foods  that  may  bo  made  for  horses 
when  subjected  to  hard  work.  The  albuminoids  should 
amount  to  from  23^  lbs.  to  3>o  lbs.  per  day.  No.  2  is  ap- 
parently deficient  in  this  element;  but  we  have  used  this 
ration  with  good  results  for  three  or  more  montlis.  It  will 
also  be  seen  that  good  clover  hay,  12  lbs.,  and  IG  lbs.  corn- 
meal,  will  give  2.24  lbs.  of  muscle-forming  matter,  and 
make  a  very  good  ration  to  work  on  ;  but  it  would  be 
much  improved  to  give  1-4  lbs.  of  corn-meal  and  2  lbs.  of 


FEEDING   HORSES. 


389 


oil-meal.  This  renders  it  less  heating,  and  the  oil  has  the 
effect  of  cleansing  the  stomach  and  intestines,  and  prevent- 
ing all  danger  of  a  constipated  condition  of  the  system. 

Rations  for  Horses,  per  1,000  lbs.  "Weight. 


1 

<6 

.Q 
9 
03 
O 

"a 

% 

o 

Digestible. 

No.  1. 

'o 

a 

a 
< 

1 

1 

12  lbs.  timothy  hay 

cents. 
06 
11 
03 

lbs. 

10.29 
9.57 
4.42 

lbs. 
0.69 

0.S2 
1    Oi 

lbs. 
5.20 
7.40 
2.19 

lbs. 
0.17 

11  lbs.  corn -meal  

0.34 

5  lbs.  mult  sprouts 

0  05 

20 

24.28     j      2. .55 

14.79 

0.56 

No.  2. 
8  lbs.  red  clover  

1 
4                  6.72 

0..56 
0.08 
0.90 
0.60 

3.05 
2.47 
8.07 
2.91 

0  10 

6  lbs  oat-striiw           

12 

3;^ 

5.14 
10.44 
5.32 

0  04 

0  37 

6  lbs.  wheat  middliiif^s 

0  19 

21          1      27.62 

2.14 

16.50 

0.70 

No.  3. 
8  lbs.  alsike  clover 

4 
2 
10 
3 

21>^ 

6.72 
4.37 
8.70 
5.23 
1.79 

0.67 
0.20 
0.75 
0.64 
0.60 

2.57 
2.60 
6.73 
3.00 
0.62 

0  15 

6  lbs.  corn-fodder 

0.06 
0  31 

0  14 

2  lbs.  linseed-meal 

0  06 

26.81 

2.86 

15.52 

0.71 

No.  4. 

6 

8 

3^ 

10.29 
6.96 
1.73 
5.32 

0.71 
0.60 
0.83 
0.60 

4.80 
5.38 
0.82 
2.91 

0  20 

8  lbs.  corn-meal 

0  25 

3  lbs  linseed-cake 

0  31 

0  19 

22 

24.30 

2.74 

13.91 

0.95 

No.  5. 
6  lbs.  meadow  hay 

3 
2 

8 
7 
2)^ 

5.14 
6.86 
6.96 
5.14 
1.95 

0.33 
0.07 
0 .  CO 
1.21 
0  66 

•      2.46 
2.88 
5.-38 
3.26 
0.35 

0.06 
0  03 

8  lbs.  corn-meiil 

6  lbs.  pea-.Tieai 

2  lbs.  cottou-seed  meal. 

:;; 

0.25 
0.10 
0.32 

2i}i      1       27.95 

2.87 

14.33 

0.76 

390  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

But  let  US  call  attention  to  that  grain  ration  which  is 
easily  obtained  in  all  parts  of  the  country — equal  weight 
of  oats  and  corn  ground  together — 16  lbs.  of  the  composi- 
tion fed  with  one  bushel  of  cut  hay,  or  half  hay  and  half 
straw,  will  enable  a  team  horse  to  do  good  work.  But  a 
better  ration  still  is,  950  lbs.  of  oats,  950  lbs.  of  corn,  and 
100  lbs.  of  flax-seed,  all  ground  together.  The  20th  part 
of  flax-seed  improves  the  ration  in  albuminoids,  and  very 
much  in  oil — 35  lbs.,  or  IM  per  cent,  to  the  2,000  lbs.  We 
have  fed  this  for  long  periods — sometimes  tAvo  years  con- 
tinuously— and  have  found  no  ration  that  silrpasses  it.  It 
is  well  balanced  as  a  working  ration,  and  juSt  laxative 
enough  for  health.  It  keeps  the  coat  fine  and  glossy ;  and, 
as  I  think,  by  its  aperient  quality,  prevents  COlds  and 
other  diseases  following  them.  It  is  probable  that  decorti- 
cated cotton-seed  would  do  as  well  as  flax-seed,  and  would 
be  a  valuable  addition  to  the  ration  for  Southern  horses. 
Decorticated  cotton-seed  meal  may  also  be  profitably  used 
in  the  ration  for  horses,  but  it  should  seldom  exceed  IH  to 
2  lbs.  per  day. 

The  American  Institute  Farmers'  Club  appointed  a  com- 
mittee to  make  a  thorough  examination  of  the  method  of 
feeding  in  omnibus  and  railroad  stables  of  New  York  City, 
where  the  number  of  horses  is  so  large  that  a  useful  lesson 
could  be  learned.  This  was  in  1855.  (See  transactions  of 
that  year.)  We  give  the  important  part  of  the  report,  and 
our  readers  can  study  it  with  profit : 

*^  It  is  the  object  of  the  stage  proprietors  to  get  all  the 
work  out  of  their  teams  possible,  without  injury  to  the 
animals.  Where  the  routes  are  shorter,  the  horses  conse- 
quently make  more  trips,  so  the  different  amounts  and  pro- 
portions of  food  consumed  are  not  so  apparent  when  the 
comparison  is  made  between  the  different  lines,  as  when  it 
is  made  also  with  the  railroad  and  livery  horses.  The 
stage  horses  consume  the  most  and  the  livery  horses  least. 


FEEDING   HORSES.  391 

The  stage  horses  are  fed  on  cut  hay  and  corn-meal,  wet, 
and  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  about  one  lb.  of  hay  to 
two  lbs.  of  meal,  a  ratio  adopted  rather  for  mechanical  than 
physiological  reasons,  as  this  is  all  the  meal  that  can  be 
made  to  adhere  to  the  hay.  The  animals  eat  this  mixture 
from  a  deep  manger.  The  New  York  Consolidated  Stage 
Company  use  a  very  small  quantity  of  salt.  They  think 
it  causes  horses  to  urinate  too  freely.  They  find  horses 
do  not  eat  so  much  when  worked  too  hard.  The  large 
horses  eat  more  than  the  small  ones.  Prefer  a  horse  of 
1,000  to  1,100  pounds  weight.  If  too  small,  they  get  poor, 
and  cannot  draw  a  stage;  if  too  large,  they  ruin  their 
feet,  and  their  shoulders  grow  stiff  and  shrink.  The 
principal  objection  to  large  horses  is  not  so  much  the  in- 
creased amount  of  food  required,  as  the  fact  they  are  soon 
used  up  by  wear.  They  would  prefer  for  feed  a  mixture 
of  half  corn  and  half  oats,  if  it  were  not  more  expensive. 
Horses  do  not  keep  fat  as  well  on  oats  alone,  if  at  hard 
labor,  as  on  corn-meal,  or  a  mixture  of  the  two. 

"  Straw  is  best  for  bedding.  If  salt  hay  is  used,  horses 
eat  it,  as  not  more  than  a  bag  of  200  pounds  of  salt  is  used 
in  3  months.  Glauber  salt  is  allowed  occasionally  as  a 
laxative  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  and  the  animals  eat  it 
voraciously.  If  corn  is  too  new,  it  is  mixed  with  an  equal 
weight  of  rye  bran,  which  prevents  scouring.  Jersey 
yellow  corn  is  best,  and  horses  like  it  best.  The  hay  is  all 
cut,  mixed  with  meal,  and  fed  moist.  No  difference  is 
made  between  day  and  night  work.  The  travel  is  con- 
tinuous, except  in  warm  weather,  when  it  is  sometimes 
divided,  and  an  interval  of  rest  allowed.  In  cold  weather 
the  horses  are  watered  four  times  a  day,  in  the  stable, 
and  not  at  all  on  the  road.  In  warm  weather,  four  times  a 
day  in  the  stables,  and  are  alloAved  to  sip  on  the  middle  of 
the  route. 

*^The  amount  that  the  company  exact  from  each  horse 
is  all  that  he  can  do.    In  the  worst  of  the  traveling,  they 


392 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


fed  450  bags  per  week,  of  meal,  of  100  lbs.  each.  They 
now  feed  -iOO.  The  horses  are  not  allowed  to  drink  when 
warm.  If  allowed  to  do  so,  it  founders  them.  In  warm 
weather  a  bed  of  sawdust  is  prepared  for  them  to  roll  in. 
Number  of  horses,  335.  Speed  varies,  but  is  about  four 
miles  an  hour.  Horses  eat  more  in  cold  weather  than  in 
warm,  but  the  difference  has  not  been  exactly  determined." 


>. 

_ 

^ 

—  i.  *" 

" 

o 

r:  «  o 

• 

Js 

<D 

ft 

<»   X   ^ 

5     c 

«^  c: 

o 

«-  a  i.    . 

■3 

'3 

'vH 

3 

" 

o  «  i,  bn 

Stage  Likes. 

1 

o-Hi 

c^ 

t—  .^ 

o'S 

?%l 

o 

S^ 

5^ 

" 

.  o 

Jij:!^ 

6 

Jx  :-i 

§"5 

i4 

JS 

^■■Z.>^ 

^ 

3*^ 

(2 

5 

>-i 

s 

Red  Bird  Stage  Line 

116 

ir 

14 

IS 

'^H 

3K 

Spring  Street  Stage  Line 

105 

21 

14 

20 

4 

3f 

Seventh  Avenue  Stage  Line.. 

227 

22 

10 

^8)4 

1 

2;*r 

Sixth  .\venue  )  horses 

Railroad,      5  mules 

117 

17 

10 

14 

2 

211 

17 

10 

2 

N.  Y.  Consolidated  Stage  Co., 

335 

21>!r 

8 

17 

2.9 

■2>i 

Washington  Stables,  ? 
six  livery  horses,      5 

12 

7y,* 

.... 

... 

♦And  six  quarts  of  oats  at  noon. 

From  this  report  it  appears : 

1.  That  it  is  possible  to  keep  horses  in  good  condition 
with  hard  work  when  fed  on  cut  hay  and  corn-meal  alone. 
(We  proved  this  thoroughly  in  our  own  experience,  but 
found  they  did  better  if  the  hay  was  clover.) 

2.  A  mixture  of  oats  were  found  to  benefit  the  horses, 
but  to  increase  the  expense  of  keep.  Corn -meal  keeps 
horses  fat  better  than  oi'ts. 

3.  Rye  bran  is  found  to  prevent  scouring. 

4.  Ten  pounds  of  hay  is  found  sufficient  for  work 
horses. 

The  following  table,  giving  detailed  information  of  the 
practice  of  many  horse- feeders  in  England,  is  taken  from 
London  Agricultural  Gazette,  for  Nov.  25,  1865. 


:&EEDING  fiORSES. 
Stable  Feeding  During  Winter. 


393 


Name  and  Adduesp 


Profensor  Low— Elements 
of  Agriculture 

H.  Stephens— Book  of  the 
Farm 

J.  Gibson,  Woolmet— H. 
Soc,  1850 


4iBinnie,  Seaton 

5;Thompson,  Hangmg  Side. 
W.  C.   Spooner— Ag.  Soc, 

Journal,  vol.  ix 

T.  Aitken,  Spalding,  Lin- 
colnshire   

G.    VV.    Baker,     Woburn, 

Bedfordshire 

R.  Baker,  Writtle,  Essex.. 

10  J.  Coleman,  Cirencester  . . 

11  T,  P.  Dods,  Hexham 


J.  Cobban,  Whitfield 


S.  Druce,  Jr.,  Hnsham.. 
C.  Howard,  Biddenham . 


J.  J.  Mechi,  Tiptree    

VV.  J.  Pope,  Bridport .    . 
S.  Rich,  Didmarton,  Glou 

i    cfstershire    

181 H.  E.  Sadler,  Lavant,  Sns 
sex 


19  J.  Morton,  Whitfield  Farm 

20  E.  H.  Sanford,  Dover 

21  A.  Simpson,  Beauly,  N.  B 

2-2|H.  J.  Wilson.  Mansfield  .. 

23  F.  Sowerby,  Aylesby,  N'th 

Lincolnshire 


lbs. 
56* 
112 


ad  lib.  (H) 
■■■76'"" 


84-« 


112 

ad  hb.  (%) 


49* 
2* 


168 
110 


56 


42 

112 


lbs. 

56* 

35 

84 

70* 
84 

63 

37 


60* 

52 
52 

70* 

64 

63 
84 
126 
42 
49 
52;^ 
28 


lbs. 


lbs. 
Potatoes 

56 1 
Turnips 

112 

217t 
243t 


56 


Swedes 

70 

84 

M.  Wurzel 

210 


Carrots 
350 


105 


cut  oat  sheaf 


T5   » 
GQ 


lbs. 


PoUtoes 
217t 
Barley 

42t 

14 


adUb.(K) 


Linseed 
3X 


Grains 
2  bush. 


Bran 

12 

Tail  corn 

21 

Bran 

21 


56* 


112 


ad  lib. 
ad  hb. 


196 


140 

ad  hb. 
ad  lib. 

ad  hb.* 

2  bush.* 
ad  hb.  iiy 

ad  lib.* 
ad  Ub. 

ad  lib. 


ad  hb. 
ad  hb. 
adUb.* 
ad  Ub. 
adUb.* 


^1.56 

1.44 

2.16 

2.76 
2.28 

1.14 

2.16 

2.32 
1.20 

1.74 
1.92 

1.74 

1.68 
2.04:- 

1.80 
2  165 

2.56 

2.24 

2.. 53 

1.32 

1.32 

1.56? 

1.92? 


Where  an  asterisk  (*)  is  attached  to  any  item,  it  is  to  be  understood  that  the  corn 
has  been  bruised  or  ground,  or  the  hay  or  str.iw  h:is  been  cut  into  chart".  Where  :i 
dagger  (t)  is  appended,  the  article  so  marked  has  been  boiled  or  steamed.  A  mark 
of  interrogation  (?)  indicates  that  the  result  so  marked  is  uncertain,  owing  to  some 
indefiniteness  in  the  account  given. 

Mr.  Slater,  of  Western  Colville,  Cambridgeshire,  speak- 
ing of  his  feeding  pulped  roots,  says:  "I  give  all  my 
cart  horses  a  bushel  per  day  of  pulped  mangel,  mixed  with 


394  FEEDING   ANIMALg. 

straw  and  chaff.  I  begin  in  September,  and  continue 
using  them  all  winter  and  until  late  in  the  summer,  or 
nearly  all  the  year  round,  beginning  with  smaller  quantity, 
about  a  peck,  and  then  a  half  bushel,  for  the  first  week  or 
two,  as  too  many  of  the  young-growing  mangel  would 
injure  the  horses.  I  believe  pulped  mangels,  with  chaff, 
are  the  best,  cheapest,  and  most  healthy  food  horses  can 
eat.  I  always  find  my  horses  miss  them  when  gone,  late 
in  summer.  Young  store-horses,  colts,  etc.,  do  well  with 
them." 

Farmers,  who  preserve  green  corn  in  silos,  may  produce 
the  same  effect  with  ensilage,  as  Mr.  Slater  does  with 
pulped  mangel.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  pulped  mangel 
have  a  very  beneficial  effect  upon  the  digestive  organs, 
but  we  much  doubt  the  propriety  of  feeding  to  working 
horses  as  much  as  a  bushel  of  pulped  mangel.  This 
would  be  equal  to  60  pounds  of  corn  ensilage  or  green 
corn,  whilst  30  to  40  lbs.  would  be  quite  sufficient.  Clover 
and  the  grasses  ensilaged,  could,  properly,  form  one-half 
to  three-fourths  of  the  ration  for  "norses  with  slow  work, 
for  the  clover  and  grass  ensilage  would  contain  the  requisite 
muscle-forming  food  for  work. 

The  table  last  given  shows  the  variety  of  food  given  by 
English  farmers  to  their  horses — that  oats  form  the 
principal  concentrated  food  of  the  ration,  beans  being  fed 
sparingly,  probably  because  of  greater  cost.  Hay  is  fed 
much  less  liberally  there  than  by  farmers  in  this  country, 
who,  no  doubt,  feed  too  much  hay  and  too  little  grain.  It 
will  also  be  noted  that  English  farmers,  very  generally 
cut  the  hay  and  straw  fed  to  horses,  and,  where  this  is 
done,  the  ground  feed  is  given  with  the  chaffed  hay  and 
straw.  This,  as  we  have  before  shown,  is  promotive  of 
easier  and  more  complete  digestion  of  the  food  and  of  the 
health  of  the  horse. 


feeding  horses.  395 

Feeding  for  Fast  Work. 

It  may  be  expected  that  we  should  speak  of  the  rearing 
and  feeding  of  liorses  used  for  speed.  Our  remarks  on  the 
foal  and  colt  will  mostly  apply  to  the  finest  racing  or 
trotting  blood.  We  are  aware  that  few  horsemen  have 
been  accustomed  to  use,  as  we  have  recommended,  cow's 
milk  after  weaning.  But  a  moment's  consideration  of  milk 
shows  its  distinguishing  characteristics  to  be  its  casein  and 
albumen — an  admirable  combination  with  nitrogen  for  the 
formation  of  muscle.  This  nitrogenous  compound  in 
milk  is  in  solution,  and  easily  appropriated  by  the  digestive 
organs.  A  moderate  allowance  of  sweet  skimmed  milk 
is  exactly  adapted  to  the  continuance  of  the  muscular 
growth  of  the  foal  after  weaning.  There  is  no  objection 
to  fresh  milk  from  the  cow,  as  it  will  have  the  cream  in 
addition  to  the  other  good  qualities,  but  sweet  skimmed 
milk  will  meet  all  the  necessities  of  the  case  at  consider- 
able less  expense.  Suppose  the  foal  at  and  after  weaning 
be  allowed  ten  pounds  of  skimmed  milk — this  will  con- 
tain -fV  pounds  of  digestible  albuminoids  or  muscle- 
forming  material;  and  it  would  take  five  quarts  of  oats 
to  yield  as  much  digestible  nutriment  for  the  muscular 
system.  If  we  estimate  the  milk  at  M  cent  per  pound  or 
2K  cents  (a  price  farmers  would  like  to  realize),  it  will  be 
seen  how  much  cheaper  it  is  than  oats. 

We  do  not  mean  that  ten  pounds  of  skimmed  milk 
contain  as  much  of  all  the  elements  of  food  as  five  pouncls 
or  quarts  of  oats,  but  that  it  contains  as  much  for  the 
muscles,  just  what  is  needed  most  at  this  period  in  the 
growth  of  tlie  foal.  Besides,  the  milk-sugar  or  small 
amount. of  fat  is  excellent  carbonaceous  food,  and  the  ash 
contains  the  mineral  elements  of  bones.  For  a  short  time 
after  weaning  there  should  be  a  tablespoonful  of  boiled 
flax-seed  mixed  in  the  milk  to  prevent  all  tendency  to 
constipation.      The  foal  should  be  learned  also  to  eat  a 


396  FEEDING  ANTMALS. 

quart  of  oats  or  finished  wheat  middlings.  There  should 
be  no  forcing  in  the  feeding — aim  to  keep  a  keen  appetite 
for  food,  which  assures  a  better  digestion. 

If  easily  obtained  this  milk  should  be  continued  three 
or  more  months  after  weaning ;  and  after  this,  one  quart 
of  oats  and  one  to  two  quarts  of  wheat  middlings  should 
be  continued  till  grass  affords  a  good  living. 

For  all  constipation,  rely  upon  small  quantity  of  boiled 
flax-seed  instead  of  oil,  for  that  is  dangerous  from  possible 
adulteration. 

In  rearing  this  colt,  designed,  for  fast  work,  a  parsi- 
monious policy  should  have  no  place.  Scanty  feeding 
must,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  defeat  the  purpose  in  view. 
Complete  development  cannot  result  except  from  generous 
feeding.  The  feeder  may  indeed  choose  among  various 
combinations  of  food.  Some  may  cost  less  than  others, 
and  yet  be  equally  good,  for  the  purpose.  But  he  must 
not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  there  must  always  be  a 
proper  combination  of  concentrated,  and  bulky  food. 
Horses  are,  perhaps,  fonder  of  oats  than  any  other  grain, 
yet  when  fed  too  freely  upon  oats  they  will  eat,  with  great 
relish,  even  the  bedding  in  their  stalls.  However  good  a 
single  food  may  be,  an  animal  must  not.  be  confined  to  it. 
A  combination  of  foods,  given  together  in  the  same  ration, 
will  be  relished  much  longer,  and,  for  working  horses, 
such  combined  ration  will  be  satisfactory  for  many  months 
together,  but  for  the  horse,  devoted  to  fast  work,  his  taste 
must  be  studied  and  humored  by  a  frequent  change  of  food, 
each  selected,  however,  for  its  quality  of  nourishing  the 
muscles. 

The  English  farmer  raises  the  horse-bean  as  a  specialty 
for  horses,  but  that  species  does  not  succeed  in  this  country. 
Our  grains,  which  maybe  considered  especially  appropriate 
in  larger  or  smaller  quantity  for  the  healthy  develop- 
ment of  horse  muscle,  are:     Oats,  barley,  rye,  millet,  peas. 


FEEDIXG   HOKSES.  397 

vetch,  and  the  oil-bearing  flax-seed,  and,  perhaps,  cotton- 
seed. Cotton-seed,  Y/hen  decorticated,  would  be  excellent 
to  mix  1-20  with  oats,  barley,  rye,  etc.,  before  grinding. 
When  the  tough  rind  is  taken  off  it  is  a  healthy  food,  in 
small  quantity.  Its  large  per  cent,  of  oil  would  prevent 
its  being  fed  as  more  than  a  fifteenth  part  of  the  ration. 
But  the  oil  in  that  small  part  of  the  ration  would  be  suffi- 
cient to  keep  the  digestive  organs  in  an  open,  healthy  con- 
dition. All  this  may  be  more  strongly  said  of  the  good 
effects  of  flax-seed,  when  used  in  this  small  proportion. 
The  husk  of  flax-seed  is  not  objectionable  like  that  of 
cotton-seed,  and  the  oil  is  extremely  mild  and  soothing. 

The  author  has  used  flax-seed,  in  the  small  proportion 
mentioned,  in  feeding  colts,  intended  for  fast  work,  with 
the  most  satisfactory  results — keeping  their  coats  in  fine 
condition,  the  skin  clean,  the  bowels  free,  and  by  this  giving 
an  even  development  to  the  muscles  of  the  limbs  and 
whole  body.  When  thus  using  flax-seed  in  the  ration, 
never  had  a  case  of  staring  coat  or  feverish  condition  Oi" 
the  system. 

We  have  given  these  various  grains,  which  are  easily 
produced  in  most  parts  of  the  country,  and  will  afford  a 
good  variety  of  foo.d  to  promote  the  health  and  growth  of 
the  young,  and  the  health  and  capacity  for  work  in  the 
mature  horse. 

Oats,  by  common  consent,  stand  at  the  head.  But  it  is 
highly  probable,  that  the  real  reason  for  this  general 
preference  for  oats,  rests  upon  the  fact  that  about  %  of 
oats  consists  of  husk,  which  must  be  eaten  with  the  meat 
of  the  grain,  and  thus  gives  bulk  in  the  masticated  food, 
and  a  loose  texture  through  its  substance,  permitting  a 
freer  circulation  and  more  complete  digestive  action  of  the 
gastric  juice. 

Barley  is  an  excellent  food  for  horses,  but  is  not  generally 
used  because  of  its  greater  value  for  malting.      Its  husk 


398  FEEDI^-G   ANIMALS. 

is  some  25  per  cent,  less  than  oats,  and  is,  therefore,  not 
quite  so  healthy  a  food  to  be  given  alone  and  unground, 
but  when  ground  and  mixed  with  cut  and  moistened 
clover-hay,  makes  a  desirable  ration  for  young  or  mature 
horses. 

Rye  is  of  greater  weight  per  bushel,  has  60  per  cent,  less 
husk  than  oats,  but  has  also  a  less  percentage  of  albumi- 
noids than  the  latter,  and  also  more  carbo-hydrates  and  a 
slightly  lower  nutritive  ratio,  but  when  ground  and  mixed 
with  cut  hay  makes  a  healthy  and  appropriate  ration.  Rye 
is  not  now  so  largely  used  as  horse  food  as  formerly,  owing 
to  its  extra  price  for  distilling. 

Millet-meal  is  a  highly  appropriate  food  for  young  or 
mature  horses.  It  has  a  higher  proportion  of  albuminoids 
and  a  higher  nutritive  ratio  than  oats,  but  having  less 
oil.  It  is  found,  when  well  ground  (and  it  cannot  properly 
be  fed  without  grinding),  to  be  one  of  the  best  rations  for 
horses,  being  particularly  adapted  to  the  development  of 
muscular  strength. 

Peas  contain  more  than  double  the  digestible  albumi- 
noids of  oats  and  more  than  a  hundred  per  cent,  higher 
nutritive  ratio.  Like  English  bean-meal,  our  pea-meal  is 
considered  the  strongest  horse  food.  It  has  a  somewhat 
constipating  effect  upon 'the  digestive  organs;  and  it  is 
therefore  advisable  to  mix  8  bushels  of  peas  with  8  bushels 
of  Indian  corn  and  one  bushel  of  flax-seed,  and  grind  all 
together.  The  flax-seed  counteracts  the  constipating  effect 
of  the  peas ;  and  the  mixture  has  a  slightly  higher  nutri- 
tive ratio  than  oats.  The  author  has  fed  this  ration  with 
much  satisfaction.  The  combination  of  food  elements  is 
admirable,  and  the  flavor  is  well  relished  by  horses. 

The  Vetch  is  very  similar  in  chemical  constitution  to 
peas,  and  it  may  be  used  in  about  the  same  combination 
as  a  ration.  This  crop  has  not  been  raised  as  much  in 
this  country  as  its  importance  demands.      It  is  probably 


{•EEDING   HORSES.  399 

as  sure  a  crop  in  the  Northern  and  Western  States  as 
peas. 

The  rule  in  feeding  should  be  to  use  as  many  of  these 
different  foods  as  can  be  easily  obtained.  Where  three  of 
these  different  foods  are  in  stock — one  may  be  fed  one  week, 
another  the  next,  alternating  regularly.  If  the  feeder  has 
never  tried  it,  he  will  be  surprised  to  find  how  eager  the 
horse  is  for  the  change.  Some  regard  it  better  to  give  one 
food  two  days,  and  another  the  next  two,  and  so  on.  This 
latter  is  probably  the  best  way.  Another  way  is  to  grind 
the  three  foods  together,  and  then  each  will  enter  into 
every  ration.  But  this  is  not  quite  so  tempting  to  the 
appetite,  as  the  flavor  is  the  same  at  every  meal.  AVe  have 
dwelt,  at  some  length,  npon  this  matter  of  change  of  food, 
but  it  is  a  vital  point  in  the  practice  of  the  skillful  feeder, 
and  cannot  be  too  closely  studied. 

The  colt,  whether  intended  for  fast  or  heavy  work, 
should  be  handled  at  frequent  intervals  through  all  the 
period  of  growth.  The  old  theory,  so  insisted  upon  by 
some,  is  that  the  colt  will  have  more  spirit  if  it  is  allowed 
to  run  wild,  without  handling,  till  three  or  four  years  old. 
It  will  evidently  be  more  difficult  to  break,  and,  for  a  long 
time,  if  not  always,  less  obedient  to  the  will  of  man,  than 
if  handled,  as  it  should  be,  from  two  WTeks  old.  Is  an 
animal  less  able  to  exert  his  power  at  the  will  of  m.an  tliat 
has  learned  to  have  implicit  confidence  in  him,  than  if  he 
has  run  wild,  and  having  little  or  no  confidence  in  man? 
There  is  no  foundation  in  the  theory  whatever,  but  the 
exact  opposite  is  the  fact.  There  is  much  to  be  gained  by 
controlling  the  colt  through  all  stages  of  its  growth.  But 
there  should  be  no  roughness  in  handling  him.  The  colt 
should  ])e  accustomed  to  grooming  from  an  early  age,  and 
it  should  learn  to  depend  upon  man  for  the  supply  of  its 
wants  and  to  regard  him  as  its  best  friend. 


4j00  FEEDIN^Q   ANIMALS. 


CHAPTER    XL 


SHEEP. 


Sheep  husbandry  is  destined  to  assume  very  great  im- 
portance in  this  country.  It  appears  to  be  the  industry 
which  cannot  produce  a  supply  equal  to  the  demand. 
There  is  no  probability  of  our  ever  growing  much  wool  for 
export.  The  wants  of  our  population  in  clothing  will  even 
more  than  keep  pace  with  our  wool  production.  But  it  is 
to  be  hoped  that,  with  our  constantly  expanding  territory 
suited  to  the  production  of  wool  and  mutton,  we  may, 
within  a  short  period,  be  able  to  supply  most  of  the  wool 
now  imported.  It  is  the  one  home  market  never  yet  sup- 
plied, and  thus  has  the  advantage  of  most  other  agricul- 
tural industries,  of  a  customer  unsought.  In  dairying, 
beef-growing,  wheat-growing,  and  cultivating  swine  pro- 
ducts, we  sedulously  stimulate  the  foreign  demand ;  but  in 
wool-growing  our  last  fleece  is  sought  at  our  own  door. 
We  are  improving  so  rapidly  the  machinery  for  manufoct- 
uring  the  best  cassimeres,  broadcloths,  and  Brussels,  Wilton 
and  Axminster  carpets,  that  our  wools  bring  better  prices 
to  the  grower  than  those  of  any  other  country.  We  have 
cheaper  lands,  cheaper  foods,  and  as  good  a  climate  for 
sheep-growing,  as  can  be  found  ;  and  all  we  need  beyond 
these  to  compete  with  all  the  world  in  wool  production  is  a 
knowledge  of  the  business  equal  to  our  facilities.  Here,  as 
elsewhere,  we  must  study  the  whole  business,  understand 
and  utilize  all  its  details.  Simple  wool-growing  cannot  be 
maintained  in  any  country  where  land  has  any  considerable 


FEEDING   SHEEP.  401 

valire.  To  breed  and  feed  sheep  simply  for  the  wool  is 
little  better  than  raising  Avheat  for  the  straw — the  more  val- 
uable half  goes  to  waste.  As  civilization  has  advanced, 
and  the  processes  of  agriculture  have  been  improved,  one 
country  after  another  has  ceased  to  grow  wool  for  itself 
alone — mutton  has  become  the  principal,  and  wool  the  in- 
cident of  the  business.  This  transition  was  accomplished 
in  England  first;  but  France  is  moving  on  steadily  to  the 
same  point.  England  did  it  by  improving  the  Leicester^ 
Cotswold  and  Southdown  mutton  sheep.  France  has  been 
gradually  doing  it  by  transforming  the  Merino  into  a  mut- 
ton breed,  by  an  improved  system  of  feeding.  This  was  based 
upon  the  true  physiological  principles  of  animal  growth. 
At  the  breeding  establishment  of  Kambouillet,  the  last 
century  has  witnessed  an  almost  complete  transformation 
of  the  Merino — from  the  small-bodied,  short-fibered,  thm- 
fleshed,  slow-maturing  animal  of  the  past,  has  come  a  larger 
size,  a  little  coarser  and  longer  fibre,  a  heavier  carcass,  and 
a  heavier  fleece ;  one  more  ready  to  take  on  flesh,  and  much 
earlier  in  maturing.  The  best-fed  American  Merinos  are 
tending  in  the  same  direction.  They  are  animals  of  much 
better  formed  bodies,  longer  staple,  heavier  fleece,  earlier 
maturity,  and  better  flavored  flesh  than  the  originals  im- 
ported. The  French  are  also  testing  the  English  Leicester 
and  Cotswold  cross  upon  the  Merino,  to  hasten  the  trans- 
formation to  a  mutton  carcass.  The  tendency  everywhere 
is  to  utilize  the  flesh  in  the  best  possible  way.  It  must  not 
be  supposed  that  this  transformation  has  reduced  the  quan- 
tity or,  materially,  the  quality  of  the  wool.  The  quantity 
has  been  very  materially  increased,  as  well  as  its  aggregate 
value;  so  that  the  wool  interest  is  not  injured  by  this  new 
zeal  in  favor  of  the  mutton.  Good  feeding  improves  the 
coat,  whether  it  be  hair  or  wool — note  the  favorable  effect 
upon  the  hair  of  well-fed  cattle,  compared  to  those  poorly 
fed,  and  also  upon  the  wool  of  well-fed  and  poorly-fed 
sheep. 


402  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

Profit  ill  sheep  liusbandry  means  the  most  generous  and 
judicious  feeding  and  care,  carried  out  in  every  pa-rt  of  the 
system.  When  this  is  done,  so  far  from  sheep  being  un- 
profitable upon  our  higher-priced  hinds,  it  is  doubtful  if 
any  other  animal  pays  so  well.  In  Enghmd,  it  has  been 
said  that,  on  lands  worth  three  to  live  hundred  dollars  per 
acre,  fertility  can  be  more  profitably  kept  up  with  sheep 
than  any  other  stock.  Dairy  stock,  for  instance,  carry  olF 
much  more  in  the  milk  alone  than  sheep  in  all  ways,  be- 
sides taking  as  much  to  build  the  bones  and  grow  their 
bodies.  The  waste  of  phosphates  is  much  more  raj^id  in 
dairying  than  sheep  husbandry.  If,  then,  sheep  may  bo 
fed  to  profit  in  England  on  land  worth  four  hundred  dollars 
per  acre,  we  should  not  be  deterred  from  sheep-feeding  on 
lands  worth  $50  to  $150  per  acre.  England  is  considered 
peculiarly  a  beef-eating  country;  but  yet  the  best  mutton 
brings  a  higher  price  than  beef.  Our  large  cities  and  man- 
ufacturing towns  are  constantly  increasing  their  demand 
for  good  mutton,  and  this  demand  is  likely  to  increase  as 
fast  as  the  production.  If  we  should  feed  as  lai'ge  a  num- 
ber of  sheep  per  hundred  acres  in  the  Middle  and  Eastern 
States  as  does  Great  Britain,  the  desire  for  emigration  from 
these  States  to  more  fertile  lands  of  the  "West  would  soon 
cease. 

Sheep  Feeding  in  New  Jersey. 

New  Jersey,  lying  nearly  equally  distant  between  the  two 
largest  cities  of  the  country,  where  populations  of  over  two 
millions  are  fed,  has  accomplished  more  in  feeding  for  mut- 
ton than  any  other  State.  Yet  all  feeding  stuffs  are  per- 
haps higher  in  this  State  than  any  other.  The  fact,  there- 
fore, that  sheep  may  here  be  fed  at  a  profit,  shows  how  the 
same  system  might  be  very  widely  extended  to  other  States 
in  the  vicinity,  as  the  cost  of  feeding  and  transportation, 
combined,  would  be  even  less.  Ou  farms  that  need  reno- 
vation, sheep  feeding  is  most  desirable,  because,  properly 


FEEDING   SHEEP.  403 

conducted,  it  will  pay  for  purchased  grain,  and  in  this  way 
the  manure  will  be  made  very  rich,  and  the  refertilization 
progress  rapidly. 

The  method  of  procedure  in  New  Jersey  has  largely 
been  as  follows:  The  flock  of  ewes  are  changed  yearly. 
They  are  selected  in  August  or  September,  for  their  thrifty 
breeding  condition,  from  flocks  reaching  that  State  or  New 
York  City  from  Ohio  or  Pennsylvania,  and  some  from  Can- 
ada. They  are  purchased  it  a  wide  range,  from  S3  to  $6 
per  head ;  are  placed  upon  fresh  pastures  in  the  early  fall, 
and  if  thin,  furnished  cooling  wheat  middlings  to  start 
thrift  during  mild  weather.  They  are  served  by  South- 
down rams,  and  fed  well  during  winter,  usually  upon  corn, 
oats  and  middlings.  It  is  not  attempted  to  fatten  them,  as 
that  would  heat  their  blood  unfavorably ;  yet  they  must  be 
kept  in  fine  thrifty  condition,  that  their  lambs  may  come 
strong,  and  the  ewes  yield  abundance  of  milk.  These 
lambs  are  pushed,  and  sold  off  in  May  and  June.  The 
fleeces  of  the  mothei'S  are  sold  early,  and  they  fed  heavily, 
and  fattened  for  sale  early  in  summer.  So  the  transaction 
of  the  August  previous  in  the  purchase  of  the  flock  is 
closed  out  about  the  1st  of  July,  and  all  completed  before 
the  end  of  the  year.  The  best  feeders  reckon  that  from  86 
to  $10  are  received  per  head  for  feed  and  care,  and  a  large 
amount  of  valuable  manure  obtained  for  the  growth  of 
grain  crops.  These  ewes  are  usually  grade  Merinos ;  and 
the  lambs  produced  by  a  cross  of  Southdown  are  found  to 
feed  much  better,  and  bring  extra  prices  in  the  early 
market.  This  system  has  some  important  points  to  recom- 
mend it — that  the  food  used  is  all  made  active  in  producing 
an  immediate  result,  and  nothing  wasted  on  keeping  up  the 
vital  organism  during  a  storing  period.  It  is  all  used  either 
to  fatten  the  lambs  or  fatten  the  mothers,  and  the  sheep 
are  passed  into  market,  and  the  cash  realized,  before  dis- 
ease brings  its  hazards. 


404  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

This  system  is  also  followed,  to  some  extent,  in  j)ortions 
of  Southern  New  York,  and  the  adjacent  parts  of  Penn- 
sylvania ;  and  when  a  good  lot  of  ewes  can  be  obtained,  the 
best  management  is  generally  successful.  But  this,  how- 
ever, is  the  mere  factitious  part  of  sheep  husbandry.  It  is 
making  the  best  of  a  bad  system  carried  on  by  others,  who 
do  not  know  how  properly  to  dispose  of  the  sheep  they 
raise.  These  ewes  are  raised  under  a  very  defective  system 
of  feeding,  and  are  not  so  thrifty  and  disposed  to  early  ma- 
turity as  they  Avould  be  if  reared  under  a  better  system  ; 
and  it  is  only  by  a  Southdown  cross  (or  perhaps  a  Cotswold) 
that  good  early  lambs  can  be  raised  for  market.  Yet  these 
ewes  are  benefited  by  raising  these  lambs  under  a  better 
system  of  feeding,  and  make  very  fair  carcasses  of  mutton 
themselves  after  this  preparation.  They  have  been  fed  so 
sparingly  all  their  previous  lives,  that  it  takes  a  few  months, 
under  good  feeding,  to  induce  a  thrifty  and  healthy  state 
of  the  secretions  preparatory  to  fattening.  This  state  of 
sheep-feeding  is  in  the  same  condition  that  cattle-feeding 
was  a  few  years  ago,  when  the  store  cattle  were  raised  by 
one  class  of  farmers,  and  fattened  for  beef  by  another;  and 
this  is  still  the  practice  in  many  parts  of  the  country;  but 
it  is  quite  different  from  that  complete  system  of  sheep- 
feeding  to  be  established  in  the  future,  in  which  the  lambs 
will  never  pass  from  the  hands  of  the  feeder  until  sold  to 
the  butcher  or  shipper.  Then  uniformity  of  practice  may 
be  established,  and  the  animal  receive  such  food  and  care 
every  day  of  its  life  as  to  produce  the  best  result  under  the 
system  adopted. 

The  old  system  of  slow  growth  and  late  maturity  has 
been  abandoned  by  the  most  progressive  feeders  of  all 
classes  of  animals  intended  for  food,  and  the  better  one  of 
full-feeding,  rapid  growth,  and  early  maturity  adopted  in- 
stead. There  is  no  class  of  animals  to  which  this  improved 
system  may  be  applied  with  greater  profit  than  sheep. 


feeding  sheep.  405 

The  Double  Income. 

It  is  important  in  all  branches  of  industry  to  consider 
the  sources  of  income,  and  their  availability  at  short 
periods.  Sheep  afford  two  annual  incomes — lambs  and 
^^ool— and  they  are  usually  about  equal  in  yalue.  The 
experiments  of  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes,  in  reference  to  the  per- 
centage of  food  utilized  or  stored  up  by  different  animals, 
presented  the  sheep  in  a  very  favorable  light.  Of  the  dry 
food  consumed,  he  found  that  sheep  stored  up  in  increased 
weight  12  per  cent.,  while  cattle  only  laid  up  in  increased 
weight  8  per  cent.;  that  is  SH  lbs.  of  dry  food  increased  the 
live  weight  of  sheep  as  much  as  12^  lbs.  the  live  weight  of 
cattle.  So  that,  relying  upon  these  experiments,  sheep  must 
be  considered  as  excellent  utilizers  of  food,  as  producing  as 
many  pounds  of  mutton,  besides  the  wool,  from  a  given 
quantity  of  food,  as  can  be  produced  of  beef;  and  as  the 
Ijest  mutton  brings  as  high  a  price  as  the  best  beef,  it  would 
appear,  on  this  basis,  that  sheep  would  give  the  fleece  as 
extra  profit  over  cattle.  If  this  is  not  too  favorable  a  view, 
then  sheep  on  suitable  lands  must  be  considered  among  the 
most  profitable  of  fiirm  stock.  It  is  true  the  dairy  cow 
brings  her  profitable  flow  of  milk  to  off'set  the  yield  of  wool ; 
but  the  dairy  cow  does  not  lay  on  flesh  while  producing 
milk,  as  does  the  sheep,  while  producing  wool.  A  fleece  of 
five  pounds  of  wool,  grown  in  a  year,  requires  only  a  daily 
growth  of  1-5  of  an  ounce,  which  can  take  but  a  small  por- 
tion of  food  to  produce.  Tfie  mineral  matter  taken  from 
the  soil  by  the  fleece  is  only  l.G  ounces  per  year;  and  if  six 
half-mutton  sheep  represent  a  cow,  the  whole  mineral  con- 
stituents taken  by  the  six  fleeces  would  only  be  9.G  oz.,  and 
about  1.9  lbs.  of  nitrogen  ;  whilst  the  ordinary  cow,  yield- 
ing 4,000  lbs.  of  milk,  would  take  20  lbs.  of  mineral  matter 
or  ash,  and  25  lbs.  of  nitrogen,  or  43  times  as  much  mineral 
matter,  and  13  times  as  much  nitrogen  as  the  fleeces  of  the 
sheep.     But  this   is   not  considering  all   the  elements  of 


406  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

waste  in  feeding  slieep.  Let  us  suppose  the  six  ewe  sheep 
will  cany  off  in  growing  bone  and  muscle,  or  in  supplying 
the  waste  of  bone  and  muscle,  as  much  as  in  growing  the 
fleece;  and  besides  this,  let  us  suppose  that  these  six  ewes 
raise  five  lambs,  of  -40  lbs.  live  weight  each.  This  200  lbs. 
live  weight  of  fat  lambs  would  contain  of  dry  matter  87.4 
lbs.,  containing  3.9  lbs.  of  nitrogen  and  5.9  lbs.  of  mineral 
matter.  This  would  give  an  aggregate  of  7.2  lbs.  of  min- 
eral matter,  and  7.7  lbs.  of  nitrogen,  as  the  waste  from  six 
ewes  and  their  five  lambs,  which  is  less  than  one-third  of 
the  waste  of  mineral  matter  and  nitrogen  from  the  milk  of 
a  cow.  The  six  ewes  and  five  lambs  will  consume  more 
food  than  a  cow  ;  but  all  that  is  stored  up  and  carried  off  is 
less  than  one-third  as  much  as  in  the  milk.  This,  then, 
explains  the  Spanish  proverb,  "^the  sheep's  foot  is  golden"; 
that  it  brings  improvement,  and  not  depletion  of  the  soil. 
This  double  income  from  the  fleece  and  the  lambs  may 
be  certainly  respectable  without  counting  high  figures. 
The  fleeces,  at  a  moderate  average  price,  would  bring  -Slo.^O, 
and  the  lambs,  at  a  low  figure,  $20,  or  $33.50  as  the  income 
of  the  six  ewes. 

Eakly  Maturity. 

When  the  production  of  lambs,  mutton,  and  wool  is 
carried  on  under  a  regular  system,  and  the  breeding  ewes 
are  reared  by  an  experienced  breeder,  whether  they  be  of  a 
fixed  type — such  as  tlie  Southdown,  Shropshire  Down, 
Cotswold,  Leiceste'r,  etc.,  or  a  cross  of  one  of  these  upon 
grade  Merinos,  or  a  mixture  of  common  blood — the  breeder 
knows  that  the  best  care  and  feeding  for  a  few  generations 
will  greatly  influence  their  early  maturity,  and  consequentl}^ 
the  profit  to  be  derived  from  them.  There  is  probably  no 
animal  more  plastic  in  the  hands  of  a  skillful  feeder  than 
the  sheep.  By  the  cross  of  a  thoroughbred  male  upon 
selected  common  ewes,  and  the  best  of  feeding,  even  the 
first  generation  will  show  a  decided  change  in  the  period  of 


EARLY    MATURITY.  407 

maturity,  making  a  larger  growth,  and  showing  a  fuller 
development  in  12  months  than  the  dams  had  shown  in  18 
months.  The  next  cross  will  show  also  a  great  improve- 
ment on  the  first.  And  here  time  is  the  great  element  of 
success.  As  we  have  seen  in  the  growth  of  animals,  if  the 
gain  in  weight  can  be  doubled  in  a  given  time,  the  cost  is 
not  doubled,  for,  after  the  food  of  support,  all  the  extra 
food  digested  and  assimilated  is  laid  up  in  increase.  If  it 
requires  two-thirds  of  an  ordinary  ration  to  support  the 
animal  without  gain,  and  if  a  certain  ration  would  increase 
the  weight  of  a  sheep  \%  lbs.  per  week,  then  if  one-third 
addition  to  this  ration  was  equally  well-digested  and  assim- 
ilated, the  sheep  would  gain  three  pounds  per  week — a 
saving  of  two-thirds  of  the  cost  in  the  increased  growth. 
Then,  to  double  the  growth  in  a  given  time,  reduces  the 
cost  of  the  whole  growth  one-third,  and  this  one-third  gain 
in  profit  is  a  good  margin. 

Let  us  illustrate  this  in  the  growth  of  early  lambs. 
Under  scanty  feeding — that  is,  the  ewe  being  insufficiently 
fed  to  yield  a  good  flow  of  milk-^the  lamb  would  make  a 
slow  growth  of  about  VA  lbs.  per  week,  and  would  weigh 
about  21  lbs.  at  three  months  old.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  ewe  is  a  fair  milker,  and  is  fed  one-third  extra  food 
adapted  to  produce  milk,  the  extra  milk  will  double  the 
weight  of  the  lamb,  reaching  40  lbs.  at  three  months.  The 
significance  of  this  double  growth  is  not  measured  by 
doubling  the  value  of  the  lamb,  however ;  for  the  40-lb. 
lamb  often  brings,  in  April  and  May,  $10  in  our  best  mar- 
kets, while  the  20-lb.  lamb  would  scarcely  bring  $3. 
Doubling  the  weight  often  trebles  the  value,  or  more.  The 
yearling  Avether  that  weighs  150  lbs.  will  sell  for  more  than 
double  the  price  of  the  one  that  weighs  80  to  100  lbs. ;  so 
that  the  more  rapid  growth  means  not  only  one-third  less 
cost,  but  double  the  value.  This  is  a  decided  encourage- 
ment both  ways  for  good  feeding.     Early  maturity — that  is, 


408  FEEDING  AKIMALS. 

the  even,  healthy,  rapid  development  of  the  yonng  animal, 
is  the  great  thing  to  be  striven  for  in  sheep  feeding,  as  in 
every  other  department  of  feeding  which  is  to  fit  animals 
for  human  food.  This  holds  good  in  both  the  vegetable 
and  animal  world.  It  is  the  tender,  juicy,  crisp  radisli  and 
asparagus  that  tempt  the  appetite,  and  these  must  be  grown 
rapidly  to  reach  this  degree  of  excellence.  It  is  also  the 
tender,  juicy,  high-flavored  meat  that  fills  our  desires  for 
that  food ;  and  this,  like  the  vegetable,  must  be  grown  or 
matured  rapidly.  This  matter  of  early  maturity  is  of  the 
highest  consideration  in  any  system  of  profitable  meat  pro- 
duction. 

We  must  consider  the  present  stage  of  sheep-feeding 
when  conducted  for  the  production  of  mutton,  as  in  a 
transition  state— the  feeders  simply  endeavoring  to  graft 
upon  the  old  system  of  wool-raising,  abetter  system  of  fat- 
tening. But  we  wish  to  discuss  a  system  of  sheep  hus- 
bandry adapted  to  our  older  States,  which  shall  be  complete 
and  harmonious  in  all  its  parts,  and  conducted  as  a  regular 
business  from  year  to  year  ;  the  flock  being  bred  and  handled 
by  the  farmer  through  all  its  stages,  until  the  carcass  goes 
to  the  butcher  and  the  wool  to  the  manufacturer.  It  should 
be  carried  on  as  systematically  as  the  best  dairying,  every 
part  of  the  business  being  carefully  considered. 

Selection"  of  Sheep  for  Breeding. 

The  plan  of  our  work  does  not  include  a  discussion  of 
the  philosophy  of  breeding,  but  it  is  necessary  to  consider 
the  style  of  sheep  to  feed  for  a  particular  purpose.  As  we 
endeavored  to  show,  the  wool  alone  does  not  afford  an  ade- 
quate object  for  feeding  sheep  in  States  wliere  land  lias 
any  considerable  value,  and  it  therefore  follows  that  a  system 
of  sheep  husbandry  adapted  to  the  older  States  must  deal 
with  sheep  fitted  for  the  production  of  mutton — that  mutton 
must  be  the  first  consideration  and  wool  the  second. 


SELECTION    OF    SHEEP.  409 

With  this  ohject  in  view,  some  one  of  the  mutton  hreeds 
must  be  selected,  either  for  pure  breeding  or  to  cross  upon 
the  Merino  or  grade  sheep.  The  latter  must,  of  necessity, 
be  the  plan  adopted,  since  there  are  not  pure-bred  sheep 
enough  to  be  had  within  any  practicable  limit  of  price  to 
set  up  any  large  number  of  flocks.  It  is  therefore  evident 
that  we  must  breed  our  mutton  sheep  from  the  materials  at 
our  command,  and  we  certainly  have  a  pretty  extensive 
variety  of  material  upon  which  to  engraft  the  Down,  Lei- 
cester, or  Cotswold  blood. 

If  our  breeders  will  follow  the  wise  example  of  Bakewell, 
in  reference  to  the  style  of  sheep  to  be  improved,  it  will 
much  hasten  their  progress.  In  Bakewell's  time,  Leicester 
sheep  were  long-legged,  rough-boned  sheep,  greatly  wanting 
in  symmetry  of  form.  He  started  out  with  the  sound 
principle  that  tlie  largest  proportion  of  the  value  of  the 
slieep  was  in  its  mutton,  and  he  had  also  observed  that  the 
medium-sized,  compact,  and  symmetrically-formed  sheeji 
took  on  flesh  much  more  readily  tlian  the  larger  and 
rougher  specimens.  He  therefore  .selected  from  various 
llocks  the  most  evenly  and  symmetrically-developed  animals 
he  could  find,  that  showed  the  greatest  aptitude  to  fatten, 
and  that  he  thought  would  produce  the  largest  proportion 
of  valuable  meat,  and  the  least  amount  of  offal.  Having 
made  his  selections,  he  carefully  studied  tlie  peculiarities  of 
the  individual  animals  from  which  he  bred,  and  never  hesi- 
tated to  discard  those  that  did  not  come  up  to  his  ideal.  It 
is  true  he  selected  all  his  animals  from  the  old  Leicester 
blood,  and  that  he  did  not  scruple  to  breed  those  together 
that  were  related,  but  the  animals  bred  Avere  selected  for 
their  strong  points  of  adaptation  to  each  other. 

Breeders  of  to-day  may  select  on  the  same  principle  as 

did  Bakewell,  choosing  the  medium-sized  ewes  and  those 

having  the  most  even  development,  from  the  grade  Merinos 

or  the  common  bloods,  and  crossing  upon   these  a  good 

18 


410  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

Down,  Leicester  or  Cotswold  ram.  But,  as  in  Bakewell's 
case,  the  selection  of  the  best  must  continue,  and  the 
defective  be  constantly  weeded  out.  In-and-in  breeding 
produced  no  evil  effects  in  his  case,  because  he  constantly 
coupled  such  males  and  females  as  tended  to  remedy  the 
defects  that  existed  on  either  side.  This  mode  of  selection 
resulted  in  the  most  remarkable  improvement  in  the  Leices- 
ter sheep  as  a  meat-producing  animal  that  has  ever  occurred 
in  the  history  of  breeding.  The  change  in  external  appear- 
ance of  the  old  and  new  Leicesters  was  so  great  as  to  be 
regarded  by  some  as  a  new  variety  of  sheep,  and  led  many 
to  suppose  that  Bake  well  had  crossed  different  breeds  in 
producing  the  result ;  but  this  is  clearly  disproved.  There 
can,  however,  be  no  doubt  that  if  our  sheep-breeders  will 
make  sucli  selections  of  ewes  as  we  have  indicated,  and 
proceed  to  cross  one  of  these  fixed  breeds  of  mutton- sheep 
upon  them,  continuing  with  males  from  the  same  strain  of 
blood,  the  result,  in  a  few  generations,  will  be  an  extremely 
uniform  animal;  and  then  males  may  be  selected  from  the 
same  flock.  Our  readers  must  not  suppose  this  to  be  an 
expensive  plan  of  improving  a  flock.  The  ewes  may  be 
selected  at  a  mere  trifle  above  ordinary  price.  A  Leicester, 
Southdown,  or  Cotswold  ram  can  be  purchased  or  leased 
at  a  small  sum. 

The  outlay  above  purchasing  an  ordinary  flock  need  not 
exceed  $50  to  $100,  if  a  start  is  made  with  from  25  to  50 
ewes.  If  such  a  system  of  breeding  should  be  multiplied 
to  any  considerable  extent,  it  would  also  produce  a  class  of 
ram-breeders,  as  it  has  in  England  ;  and  the  system  of  ram- 
letting  would  also  be  here  introduced,  which  has  many 
advantages,  for  this  would  enable  the  breeder  to  select  a 
ram  from  a  considerable  number,  and  he  could  change  the 
ram  as  often  as  he  found  advantageous.  The  result  of 
crossing  the  Southdown  and  Cotswold  rams  upon  grade 
Merinos  has  been  so  well  tested  in  this  country  as  to  be 


SUMMER   FEEDING   OF   SMALL   FLOCKS.  411 

no  longer  regarded  as  an  experiment.  The  progeny  are 
found  to  feed  nearly  as  well  as  the  full  blood,  and  the 
improvement  on  the  first  generation  is  considered  a  full 
return  for  the  expense.  The  next  generation  approximates 
still  closer  to  the  type  of  the  male,  and,  of  course,  the  cost 
of  this  system  of  breeding  becomes  less  and  less  the  longer 
it  is  continued.  There  is  no  loss  upon  those  discarded  as 
breeders,  for  they  pay  their  full  cost  when  sent  to  the 
butcher.  The  temptation  to  keep  defective  animals  for 
breeding  will  not  exist  in  this  case  as  in  the  case  of  pure 
breeding,  for  the  value  of  the  animal  will  be  measured  by 
its  value  for  mutton  and  wool.  There  is  nothing  sacrificed 
here,  either  in  carcass  or  fleece,  for  the  mode  of  improving 
the  one  will  also  improve  the  other.  The  Merino  blood 
will  improve  the  wool,  and  the  Cotswold  blood  will  improve 
the  meat. 

Summer  Feeding  of  Small  Flocks. 

There  has  been  a  great  deal  of  speculation  as  to  all  the 
minutiae  of  Bakewell's  methods  of  breeding,  and  many 
contrary  opinions  entertained,  but  little  has  ever  been  said 
or  curiosity  manifested  as  to  Bakewell's  mode  of  feeding. 
All  his  success  was  attributed  to  some  occult  system  of 
breeding,  and  they  neglected  to  inquire  into  one  of 
the  principal  causes  of  his  success — his  system  of  feed- 
ing. His  principles  of  breeding  brought  him  a  sym- 
metrical animal,  but  improved  feeding  was  absolutely 
necessary  to  develop  it.  This  point  seems  to  be  well 
established  in  regard  to  his  system.  He  sought  to  develop 
a  sheep  that  should  produce  the  largest  amount  of  meat 
for  a  given  amount  of  food.  This  hint  shows  that  the 
question  of  food,  or  economy  of  production,  was  the  point 
he  sought  to  solve,  which  shows,  further,  that  his  system 
was  complete,  and  not  a  mere  half  system,  as  it  must  have 
been  had  he  provided  merely  for  improved  breeding,  treat- 


412  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

ing  with  indifference  the  question  of  developing  the  animal 
when  bred. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  Bakewell,  with  all  his  philosophical 
ideas  upon  breeding  and  growing  animals,  was  not  large- 
hearted  and  philanthropic  enough  to  desire  that  his  im- 
provements should  be  perpetuated  for  the  benefit  of  his 
countrymen.  But  so  far  from  this,  he  neither  put  pen  to 
paper,  nor  did  he  disclose  his  system  in  conversation  with 
his  most  intimate  friends.  They  could  see  the  result  of 
his  work,  and  from  this  infer  his  system,  but  he  kept  his 
methods  and  the  details  of  his  experiments  wholly  to  him- 
self. Perhaps  we  should  not  judge  him  harshly  because 
his  countrymen,  who  have  conjectured  as  to  his  system 
and  lauded  the  result,  have  never  criticised  his  selfish 
secretiveness,  but  treated  it  as  a  natural  thing  to  expect. 
This  grows  out  of  the  different  social  education  of  the 
people  of  England  and  the  United  States.  Here  a  citizen 
feels  that  he  owes  something  to  the  public  welfare,  and 
takes  a  pride  in  promoting  it;  but  the  hereditary  govern- 
ment appears  to  prevent  the  development  of  public  spirit, 
and  leaves  the  individual  to  think  only  of  his  private 
welfare. 

A  thorough  exposition  of  Bakewell's  practical  system, 
and  the  careful  details  of  all  his  experiments,  would  have 
been  worth  millions  to  his  countrymen,  as  well  as  to  the 
breeders  of  other  countries.  But  the  world  must  be  con- 
tent with  tlie  great  good  that  has  resulted  from  the 
distribution  of  the  improved  Leicester  sheep,  and  the 
stimulus  given  by  these  to  the  improvement  of  other 
breeds. 

We  desire  to  shoAV,  somewhat  in  detail,  the  application 
of  sheep  husbandry  to  the  wants  of  agriculture  in  our 
oldest  settled  States.  Here,  under  the  principles  discussed, 
the  sheep  will  bring  the  recuperation  of  the  soil,  renew  its 
capacity  for  grain  crops,  and  bring  back  the  old-time  thrift 


HURDLE-FEEDING.  413 

to  the  owners  of  half  a  million  of  farms.  If  we  suppose 
New  York,  with  its  20,000,000  of  acres  in  grass  or  culti- 
vated crops,  to  maintain  one  sheep  to  four  acres,  it  would 
give  her  5,000,000  of  sheep— a  very  moderate  number  to  be 
carried  upon  her  acres,  yet  3.3  times  the  number  she  now 
keeps.  This  would  give  her  an  average  of  25  sheep  to  each 
100  acres  of  improved  land — a  number  that  might  easily 
be  kept  without  disturbing  her  other  industries.  A  small 
flock  of  sheep  will  bring  into  use  neglected  spots  and  fence 
corners,  will  turn  to  account  the  gleanings  of  grain  fields, 
and  consume  many  things  not  so  well  relished  by  cattle. 

Hurdle-Feedin  g. 

The  question  of  fences,  which  has  come  to  involve  a  very 
large  expense,  and  would  be  an  insuperable  obstacle  to 
sheep-keeping,  if  farms  were  to  be  fenced  into  small  fields 
in  order  to  use  all  the  neglected  forage,  is  solved  by  the 
use  of  hurdles.  Movable  hurdle  fence  is  quite  necessary  to 
the  proper  use  of  all  the  fields  upon  a  farm  for  any  class  of 
stock,  and  especially  for  sheep.  Fifty  to  100  rods  of 
movable  fence  will  be  of  the  greatest  service  upon  all 
farms.  By  using  the  hurdle,  any  piece  of  aftergrowth  or 
stubble  may  be  inclosed  in  a  few  minutes,  and  the  sheep  or 
other  animals  confined,  and  the  hurdles  may  be  moved 
over  the  field  till  every  part  of  it  is  eaten  and  turned  into 
flesh  and  wool.  This  will  have  a  double  advantage — 
turning  the  green  food  into  money  and  killing  weeds. 
The  portable  or  rolling  hurdle  is  most  convenient,  as  it  is 
placed  so  quickly,  and  rolled  along  day  by  day  to  supply 
fresh  herbage  ;  and  its  additional  cost  is  but  slight.  The 
celebrated  Mechi  used  an  iron  hurdle,  placed  upon  wheels, 
which  he  recommended  highly  because  of  its  great 
durability,  having  been  in  use  upon  his  farm  for  more 
than  thirty  years.  His  hurdle  was  too  expensive  for  our 
ideas  of  economy,  being  86.50  per  rod.     Yet  he  seemed  to 


414  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

regard  it  as  cheap,  considering  its  great  utility.  We 
invented  a  hurdle,  made  of  wrought  iron,  well  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  small  flocks  in  this  country,  and  which  we  do 
not  describe,  because  we  were  unable  to  reduce  its  price 
below  85  per  rod.  But  as  yet  the  ordinary  wooden  hurdle 
is  the  only  one  obtainable.  Such  a  movable  hurdle  would 
remove  the  most  formidable  obstacle  to  keeping  small 
flocks  upon  almost  every  farm.  Let  us  here  note  the 
important  results  which  might  follow  from  the  intro- 
duction of  such  small  flocks  of  sheep  upon  the  so-called 
worn-out  farms  of  the  older  States.  It  often  becomes  very 
difficult  to  seed  down  these  long-cultivated  fields  without  a 
very  large  application  of  manure,  which  cannot  be  had. 
With  an  easy  means  of  confining  sheep  upon  any  such  field 
or  portion  of  field,  the  fertilizer  requii">ed  for  its  renovation 
could  cheaply  be  manufactured  upon  the  spot.  By  plow- 
ing this  field  and  sowing  thickly  with  oats  to  be  fed  off  by 
sheep,  and  placing  a  few  racks  on  one  side  of  the  field,  into 
which  green  food  grown  elsewhere  upon  the  farm  can  be 
placed,  and  then  also  feeding  a  small  grain  ration,  which 
will  be  repaid  twice  over  in  the  growth  of  the  sheep,  the 
field  becomes  fertilized  by  the  droppings  of  the  sheep 
evenly  distributed  over  the  field.  This  experiment  has 
often  been  tried,  keeping  an  accurate  account  of  purchased 
grain  ;  and  the  increased  value  of  the  sheep  has  not  only 
paid  for  the  grain,  but  amply  for  the  labor,  leaving  the 
fertilization  of  the  field  as  a  clear  profit.  It  should 
always  be  a  prime  consideration  in  feeding  sheep  for  market 
to  do  as  much  as  possible  of  it  in  warm  weather.  And,  if 
they  are  kept  till  January  or  February,  still  the  feed  should 
be  very  generous  in  the  fall,  that  they  may  be  fat  enough 
for  the  butcher  at  the  beginning  of  cold  weather.  It  will 
then  cost  but  little  to  carry  them  to  the  later  period  in  fine 
mutton  condition,  so  that  this  grain  ration,  given  upon 
the  poor  fields,  will  be  profitable,  considered  only  in  refer- 


COMPENSATION   FOR   FOOD   IN   MANURE.  415 

ence  to  the  progress  of  the  sheep.  A  small  grain  ration  in 
September  and  October,  on  green  food,  will  push  them 
faster  than  a  large  one  in  cold  weather. 

When  sheep  are  fed  upon  land  needing  such  fertilization 
there  is  the  greatest  inducement  to  be  liberal  in  the  ration, 
as  an  important  result  is  obtained  without  any  real  expense. 
It  is  also  important  that  such  extra  food  should  be  chosen 
as  will  leave  the  most  valuable  fertilizer  upon  the  land. 
And  in  this  connection  it  will  be  well  for  the  American 
farmer  to  become  better  acquainted  with  linseed  oil-cake 
and  decorticated  cotton-seed  cake.  These  foods  contain  a 
large  proportion  of  oil  for  fattening,  and  also  a  very  large 
proportion  of  nitrogen,  as  well  as  the  important  mineral 
constituents  of  phosphate  of  lime,  potash,  etc.  By  feeding 
these  cakes  the  animals  not  only  progress  rapidly,  but  the 
droppings  are  much  more  valuable  than  when  on  corn 
alone.  For  summer  feeding,  as  here  mentioned,  34  lb.  of 
oil-cake  and  }i  lb.  of  corn  (or,  better,  wheat  bran)  to  each 
sheep  will  be  the  most  valuable  ration. 

As  I  am  now  illustrating  sheep-feeding  as  adapted  to  the 
long-cultivated  lands  of  the  older  States  that  have  become 
less  fertile  for  want  of  proper  stock  husbandry,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  a  full  discussion  that  we  should  consider 
somewhat  accurately  the 

Compensation  for  Food  in  Manure. 

It  is  important  that  the  feeder  should  understand  the 
quantity  of  manure  produced  for  a  given  quantity  of  food 
consumed  by  the  stock  he  feeds,  so  that  he  may  be  able  to 
know  the  return  to  be  expected  from  this  source.  The 
amount  of  manure  produced  from  a  given  quantity  of  food 
is  greater  for  the  sheep  than  the  pig  ;  but  this  arises  mostly 
from  the  greater  digestibility  of  the  food  of  the  pig  than 
that  of  the  sheep. 

In  estimating  the  value  of  the  manure  made  by  animals, 


416  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

only  the  nitrogenous  and  ash  constituents  of  the  food  are 
considered,  as  the  carbonaceous  elements  are  supplied  by 
the  atmosphere.  We  must  also  have  some  basis  for  deter- 
mining the  proportion  or  amount  of  food  elements  to  be 
found  in  the  manure.  If  there  is  no  growth  nor  increase 
in  the  live  weight  of  the  animal,  and  no  milk  produced, 
then  the  amount  of  nitrogen  and  asli  constituents  passed 
into  the  manure  must  be  equal  to  these  elements  contained 
in  the  food;  because  the  albuminoids  and  mineral  elements 
of  the  food  used  to  build  up  the  waste  of  the  system,  or  for 
the  renovation  of  tissue,  must  be  equal  to  these  elements 
broken  down  and  passed  off  by  the  degradation  of  the 
tissue;  so  that  the  same  amount  of  valuable  elements 
contained  in  the  food  will  be  found  in  the  manure.  But 
when  the  body  is  increasing  in  weight,  or  milk  is  produced, 
then  the  albuminoids  and  mineral  elements  required  to 
form  this  increase  of  body  or  the  milk,  must  be  deducted 
from  these  elements  in  the  food  consumed.  A  part  of  the 
nitrogenous  and  mineral  elements  of  the  food  is  left  undi- 
gested in  passing  through  the  alimentary  canal,  and  this  is 
found  in  the  solid  excrement.  What  is  digested  of  the 
nitrogenous  and  ash  constituents  passes  into  the  blood,  and 
is  converted  into  animal  increase,  or  milk,  if  the  animal  is 
increasing  in  weight,  or  yielding  milk,  and  the  balance  of 
these  constituents  are  separated  from  the  blood  by  the 
kidneys,  and  are  passed  in  the  form  of  urine.  These 
albuminoids  are  oxydized  into  urea  before  they  are  ex- 
pelled from  the  system.  Hippuric  acid  is  also  found  in 
the  urine  of  herbivorous  animals. 

We  find  the  proportion  of  albuminoids  that  will  appear 
in  the  solid  excrement  by  deducting  the  percentage  of 
digestible  albuminoids  from  the  whole  amount.  Dr.  Wolff's 
late  experiments  with  sheep  and  other  animals,  show  that 
sheep  digest  of  the  various  elements  of  certain  foods  as 
given  in  the  following  table  : 


COMPENSATlOISr   FOR   FOOD   IK"   MANURE. 


417 


Experiments  with  Sheep. 
Table  No.  1. 


Proportion  of  Percentage  of 
Constituent  Digested. 

Each 

Food. 

■p. 

a: 

o 

s 

S 

3 
< 

t 

5 

Pasture  grass 

Meadow  hay  (very  good) 

Meadow  h:iy  (ordinary) 

Lucerne  hay                        

75.8 
64.7 
58.7 
59.1 
72.9 
89.6 
88.5 

75.8 
64.3 
57.5 
59.0 
51.0 
46.0 
50.0 
80.0 

73.3 
66.6 
57.2 

72.8 
85.5 
87.1 
78.5 

73.3 
72.1 
55.5 
55.0 
38.0 
20.0 
51.0 
84.0 

65.4 
54.5 
44.3 
29.7 
84.8 
84.2 
84.6 

65.4 
51.6 
4;3.3 
56.0 
30.0 
36.0 
55.0 
90  0 

75.7 
65  6 
58.7 
07.9 
77.7 
91.2 
91.3 

75.7 
61.9 
55.7 
56.0 
43.0 
39.0 
60.0 
78.0 

79.5 
63.5 
59.8 
43.6 

Oats    .            

26.1 

Beans 

Indian  corn                        . .     . .       

78.5 
61.9 

Grass  cut  at  different  dates- 
May  14lh               . .                

79.5 

June    9ih 

65.7 

June  26th  

61.1 

Clover-hay 

Oat-straw 

44.0 
61.0 

Wheat-straw 

56.0 

Bean-straw .    

36.0 

It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a  steady  change  in  the  digest- 
ibility of  grass  cut  at  different  periods.  The  grass  cut 
May  14th  had  75.8  per  cent,  digestible  matter;  while  the 
same  grass  cut  June  26th  had  only  57. 5  per  cent,  diges- 
tible. Other  experiments  have  shown  the  same  difference 
in  the  digestibility  of  clover  cut  before  blossoming,  while 
in  blossom,  and  after  blossoming.  This  tabic  should  be 
well  studied,  as  a  lesson  on  the  proper  time  to  cut  grass  for 
hay.  The  percentage  digestible  of  any  constituent  is  called 
by  Dr.  Wolff  its  "digestion  co-efficient."  From  this  it  is 
easy  to  determine  what  proportion  of  nitrogen  passes  into 
the  solid  and  liquid  excrement. 

Suppose  we  take  oats:  85.5  is  its  "digestion  co-efficient"; 
that  is,  this  is  the  percentage  of  the  albuminoids  of  oats 
that  is  digestible  by  sheep,  and  therefore  the  indigestible 


418 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


14.5  per  cent,  of  the  albimiinods  of  oats  will  pass  into  the 
solid  excrement.  The  digestible  part  will  pass  into  the 
blood;  and  if  the  sheep  are  not  increasing  in  weight,  or 
suckling  lambs,  85.5  per  cent,  of  the  albuminoids  will  pass 
in  the  urine,  so  that  all  the  nitrogen  received  in  the  food 
Avill  be  voided  in  the  solid  and  liquid  excrement.  But  if 
the  animals  are  full-fed  and  are  increasing  in  weight,  then 
the  increase  will  reduce  the  quantity  of  manurial  constitu- 
ents in  the  excrement.  From  the  German  tables  of  exper- 
iments, it  is  estimated  that  the  following  percentages  are 
stored  up  and  voided  as  excrements  when  fed  on  barley- 
meal. 

Nitrogen  Stored  up  and  Voided  for  100  Consumed. 
Table  No.  2. 


Animals. 


Sheep 
Oxen 
Pigs. 


Stored  up  as 
increase. 


4.3 
3.9 
14.7 


Voided  as 
solid  ex- 
crement. 


16.7 
21.0 


Voided  as 
liquid  ex- 
crement. 


79.0 
73.5 
64.3 


In  total  ex- 
crement. 


95.7 
96.1 
85.3 


Ash  Constituents  Stored  up  and  Voided  for  100  Consumed. 
Table  No.  3. 


Animals. 

Stored  up 
increase. 

as 

Voided  in  total 
excrtment. 

Sheep 

3.8 
2.3 
4.5 

96.2 

97.7 

95.5 

An  examination  of  these  tables  will  show,  in  the  case  of 
fattening  sheep,  what  proportion  of  the  valuable  elements 
of  the  food  are  returned  to  the  soil,  or  may  be  returned,  to 
prevent  exhaustion.  Over  95  per  cent,  of  the  nitrogen  and 
ash  constituents  are  voided  in  the  excrement  in  the  cases  of 


COMPENSATIOJS"   FOR   FOOD    IX   MAN'URE. 


ii9 


•sheep  and  oxen.     This  shows  a  very  small  waste  of  the  fer. 
tilizing  matter  of  food  in  fattening  sheep. 

The  following  table  will  show  the  composition  of  solid 
and  liquid  excrement  of  sheep  fed  on  hay  : 


Table  No.  4. 


Solid  Excrement. 

Urine. 

Fresh. 

Dry. 

Fresh. 

Dry. 

Water    .   . 

66.2 

30.3 

3.5 

0.7 

10.4 
2.0 

85.7 
8.7 
5.6 

1.4 

Organic  matter 

61.0 
39  0 

9.6 

Ash 

Nitrogen 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  solid  and  liquid  excrements,  even 
when  the  sheep  are  fed  upon  hay,  are  rich  in  both  nitrogen 
and  ash  constituents,  as  a  ton  of  the  solid  would  contain 
14  lbs.  of  nitrogen,  and  a  ton  of  liquid  28  lbs.  of  nitrogen ; 
at  18  cents  per  lb.,  the  first  would  be  worth  $2.52,  and  the 
second  $5.0-4  per  2,000  lbs.,  in  the  ordinary  wet  state. 

That  the  reader  may  see  the  relative  value  of  various 
foods,  and  how  much  they  differ,  depending  on  the  propor- 
tion of  nitrogen  and  the  ash  constituents,  we  give  Table 
No.  5,  containing  many  of  the  most  common  foods, 
and  giving  the  nitrogen,  potash,  and  phosphoric  acid  in 
1,000  parts. 

This  table  shows  how  much  of  each  valuable  constituent 
is  contained  in  each  of  these  different  foods;  and  anyone 
can  calculate  the  value  of  a  ton,  by  multiplying  the  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  potash,  and  phosphoric  acid  by  the  price  of 
each  in  the  market.  Nitrogen  is  usually  estimated  at  18 
cents  per  pound,  potash  at  8  cents,  and  phosphoric  acid  at 
12  cents  per  pound.  The  figures  in  this  table  give  the 
amounts  of  these  elements  in  1,000  pounds  of  each  food, 
when  of  good  quality,  and  all  is  saved.  If  90  to  95  per 
cent,   of  these   fertilizing   constituents   of  food   could   be 


420 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


actually  saved  by  farmers  and  returned  to  the  soil,  then  it 
is  easy  to  see  the  effect  that  must  be  produced  by  judicious 
stock-feeding*  upon  the  depleted  soils  of  the  New  England 
and  Middle  States. 

Table  No.  5. 


Foods. 


,• 

ii 

a 

c; 

s 

bc 

". 

>> 

Q 

12: 

C 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

900 

66.0 

15.0? 

885 

39.0 

20.1 

900 

48  0 

13.2 

880 

45.0 

14.7 

905 

36.0 

12.3 

930 

25  0 

5.5 

903 

59.8 

17.0 

885 

47  8 

22.0 

901 

44.7 

27.6 

863 

52.2 

17.7 

897 

55.9 

26.8 

855 

41.0 

12.0 

857 

36.0 

9.8 

905 

38.0 

19.5 

8fl5 

22  0 

14.8 

870 

20.6 

4.5 

856 

18.8 

5.4 

800 

17.0 

4.9 

886 

16.6 

3.6 

840 

W.7 

19.5 

857 

15.5 

16.8 

840 

10.0 

25.9 

857 

4.8 

5.8 

850 

5.0 

9.7 

830 

5  0 

10.4 

250 

3.4 

5.6 

115 

1.9 

3,9 

107 

2.4 

2  0 

142 

1.6 

3.2 

83 

1.8 

2.9 

Cotton-seed  cake  (decorticated)... 
Cotton-seed  cake  (undecorticated) 

Rape-cake 

Linseed-cake    

Linseed  (flax-seed) 

Palm-meal    

Linseed-meal  (extracted) 

Poppy-seed  cake 

Hemp-seed  cake 

Walnut-cake    

Sunflower-seed  cake 

Beans 

Peas 

Malt  sprouts 

Wheat-bran 

Oats    

Wheat 

Barley 

Maize 

Clover-hay 

Meadow  hay 

Bean-straw 

Wheat-straw 

Barley-straw 

Oat-straw 

Potatoes 

Mangolds    

Swedes 

Carrots  

Turnips  


lbs. 

31.2 

22.9 

24.6 

19.6 

15.4 

12.2 

25.6 

40  0 

37.6 

23.4 

35.4 

11.6 

8.8 

17.2 

32.3 

6  2 

8.0 

7.3 

6.1 

5.6 

3.8 

4.1 

2.6 

2.0 

2.5 

1.8 

0.7 

0.6 

1.0 

0.6 


It  will  be  noted  that  clover-hay  is  more  valuable  than 
any  of  the  cereals  as  manure;  and  common  meadow  hay 
has  a  value  above  corn-meal.  If  the  nitrogen,  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid  are  estimated  at  the  usual  commercial 
value,  then  wheat  bran,  malt  sprouts,  linseed-meal,  and 
many  of  the  riclier  feeding  stuffs,  are  worth  all  they  cost  as 
fertilizers.  Wheat  bran  figures  at  $18  per  ton  ;  malt  sprouts 
at  $20.80 ;  linseed-meal  at  $30.48  ;  cotton  seed  (decorticated) 


VALUE   OF    EXCliEMi:XT.  421 

atl33.G4.  These  prices  maybe  beyond  the  real  money 
value ;  but  it  shows  the  intelligent  feeder  what  foods  he 
may  buy  with  safety,  expecting  to  get  back  the  cost  of  them 
in  growth,  and  increased  weight  in  fattening,  besides  get- 
ting a  large  return  in  the  manure. 

Value  of  Solid  and  Liquid  Excrement. 

We  nust  study  most  carefully  the  proportionate  value  of 
the  solid  and  liquid  manure.  Table  4  shows  the  propor- 
tionate amount  of  nitrogen  found  in  the  solid  and  liquid 
excrement,  and  the  amount  is  seen  to  be  three  to  four  times 
as  much  in  the  urine  as  in  the  solid  excrement.  The 
amount  voided  in  the  urine  will  depend  very  much  upon 
the  digestibility  of  the  food,  for  only  what  is  digestible  and 
soluble  can  pass  in  the  urine.  But  when  the  farmer  be- 
comes aware  that  considerably  more  than  half  of  the  fertil- 
izing matter  of  manure  is  to  be  found  in  the  urine,  he  will 
begin  to  consider  his  means  of  saving  this  most  important 
part  of  the  excrement.  Xot  only  is  more  than  half  of  all 
the  fertilizing  matter  of  animal  excrement  found  in  the 
urine,  but  this  is  much  the  more  valuable,  according  to 
quantity,  as  this  is  all  soluble,  and  becomes  immediate  and 
active  plant  food  ;  while  much  of  that  in  the  solid  excrement 
requires  time  for  decomposition  before  becoming  food  for 
plants.  The  solubility  of  the  fertilizing  matter  in  urine 
renders  it  so  much  more  difficult  to  preserve  from  loss.  It 
is  liable  to  be  exhaled  or  evaporated  in  the  sun,  washed 
away  by  rains,  absorbed  by  the  earth  under  the  manure 
pile,  and  temporarily  lost  in  a  great  variety  of  ways  when 
the  manure  is  kept  in  the  ordinary  careless  manner. 

The  great  effect  of  the  proper  application  and  saving  of 
all  the  liquid  excrement  is  seen  in  the  English  custom  of 
feeding  off  crops  with  sheep.  It  appears  quite  evident  that 
this  mode  of  application  greatly  increases  the  effect  over 
that  of  applying  the  manure  made  from  the  same  amount 


422  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

of  food  in  yard  or  stall,  when  the  manure  is  thrown  into  the 
yard.  When  a  crop  is  thus  fed  off  upon  the  land,,  or  when 
other  food  is  brought  and  fed  upon  a  field,  during  cool  or 
damp  weather,  all  droppings  are  saved,  and  all  urine  is  at 
once  absorbed  by  the  soil,  and  stored  as  plant  food — noth- 
ing is  lost.  It  is  in  such  applications  of  manure  that  we 
may  see  an  efiect  to  warrant  the  prices  mentioned  for  the 
fertilizing  constituents  of  foods. 

Sheep  are  the  best  animals  for  making  an  even  dis- 
tribution over  the  soil  of  the  fertilizing  ingredients  of 
excrement. 

An  Experiment. 

To  test  the  comparative  efiect  of  feeding  a  definite  quan- 
tity of  food  to  sheep  upon  the  land,  or  applying  the  ma- 
nure made  by  sheep  in  winter  under  a  shed,  from  the  same 
kind  of  food,  the  author  confined  50  large  sheep  between 
hurdles,  upon  25  rods  of  ground,  for  three  days,  commenc- 
ing early  in  June,  and  feeding  each  sheep  20  lbs.  per  day  of 
green  clover,  cut  before  blossoming,  in  racks;  and  the  parts 
of  stalks  not  eaten  at  first  were  fed  each  day  in  troughs, 
with  M  lb.  of  com-meal  and  a  pinch  of  salt,  to  each  sheep, 
spread  over  them.  Thus  treated,  the  clover  was  all  eaten. 
At  the  end  of  three  days,  they  were  moved  along  upon  an 
equal  space  adjoining ;  so  that  each  rod  of  land  received 
the  droppings  from  120  lbs.  of  green  clover  and  4K  lbs.  of 
corn-meal  in  six  days.  This  was  equal  to  4.06  lbs.  of  dry 
food  to  each  sheep  per  day — the  clover  having  83  per  cent, 
of  water — each  rod  thus  receiving  the  excrement  from  24.36 
lbs.  of  dry  food ;  or  an  acre  received  3,264  lbs.  of  dry  clover, 
and  633  lbs.  of  dry  substance  of  corn-meal.  This  would 
yield,  approximately,  in  the  excrement  90  lbs.  of  nitrogen. 
84  lbs.  of  potash,  and  22  lbs.  of  phosphoric  acid  to  tne 
acre.  The  sheep  were  moved  until  one  acre  had  been  gone 
over.  The  land  had  been  in  oats  the  previous  year,  with- 
out manure,  and  not  seeded.     Fifty  sheep,   of  about  the 


VALUE   OF   MAXUkE.  423 

same  weight,  liad  been  fed  under  a  close  shed  for  30  days  of 
the  previous  winter  upon  clover  cut  and  cured  in  good 
order,  before  blossoming,  with  one  pound  of  corn  per  head, 
per  day.  200  lbs.  of  clover-hay  were  fed  each  day,  or  4  lbs. 
per  head.  The  shed  was  bedded  four  inches  deep  with  cut 
straw  before  the  feeding  began.  The  clover  was  eaten  up 
closely.  Here  were  fed  0,000  lbs.  of  clover-hay,  or  5,100 
lbs.  of  dry  clover,  and  1,500  lbs.  of  corn,  or  1,290  lbs.,  de- 
ducting water.  Placing  this  upon  one  acre,  it  gives  the 
excrement  of  40.34  lbs.  of  dry  substance  of  food  to  the  rod; 
or  it  will  give  to  the  acre  130  lbs.  of  nitrogen,  119  lbs.  of 
potash,  and  40  lbs.  of  phosphoric  acid,  not  counting  the 
cut  straw  used  for  bedding.  It  is  proper  to  state,  that  the 
sheep  fed  upon  the  green  clover  gained  3M  lbs.  per  head, 
per  week,  while  those  in  the  shed  only  gained  2M  lbs.  per 
week. 

The  experiment  to  show  the  effect  of  the  manure  was 
conducted  thus  :  When  the  acre  was  fed  over  with  sheep 
to  clover  and  corn-meal,  this  acre  was  plowed,  June  21st, 
five  inches  deep,  preparatory  for  winter  wheat ;  and  the 
manure  from  the  shed  was  hauled  upon  the  adjoining  acre, 
and  this  was  plowed  to  the  same  depth.  About  the  20th 
of  July  each  acre  was  plowed  again  six  inches  deep,  and 
afterwards  thoroughly  worked  with  cultivator  and.  harrow, 
and  wheat  drilled  in  August  25th.  Grass-seed  was  sown 
with  the  wheat.  Kesult:  The  acre  fertilized  by  feeding 
clover  and  corn-meal  upon  it  yielded  30  bushels  of  wheat, 
the  acre  with  the  shed  manure  25  bushels.  The  grass  crops 
which  followed  were  considerably  better  upon  the  former 
acre  for  two  successive  years,  after  which  the  difference  was 
not  perceptible. 

This  experiment  showed  very  strongly  in  favor  of  feeding 
the  animals  upon  the  land  to  be  fertilized.  We  may  say, 
however,  that  when  applying  fresh  the  excrement  of  ani- 
mals taken  from  a  water-tight  receptacle,  where  both  solid 


424  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

and  liquid  were  completely  preserved,  we  found  the  effect 
quite  equal  to  feeding  upon  the  land.  We  have,  therefore, 
adopted  a  water-tight  receptacle  under  the  platform  on 
which  our  cattle  stand  in  winter,  and  cows,  during  night, 
in  summer,  and  the  excrement  is  hauled  fresh  to  the  field, 
thereby  preserving  all  its  fertilizing  elements. 

Sheep  on  Worn-out  Lands. 

We  have  illustrated  this  matter  of  the  return  for  the 
food  in  the  value  of  the  manure  at  considerable  length,  be- 
cause it  has  a  strong  bearing  upon  the  profits  of  sheep 
husbandry  in  the  older  States.  At  most  of  the  agricultu- 
ral discussions  in  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Vermont, 
New  Hampshire,  and  in  some  of  the  Middle  States,  the  great 
complaint  is  that  their  agriculture  is  in  a  state  of  decay, 
their  farms  are  deteriorating — the  product  being  less  year 
by  year.  In  the  first  two  States  named,  many  of  the  farms, 
once  profitable,  are  abandoned,  as  having  no  agricultural 
value,  although  these  farms  are  near  the  best  markets  of  the 
country.  These  farms  are  mostly  upland,  that  had  a  fair 
natural  fertility  ;  but  by  long  cropping,  and  little  return  of 
the  drafts  made  upon  them,  have  ceased  to  respond  to  labor 
so  improvidently  bestowed.  There  must  be  reciprocity  in 
agriculture  as  in  other  matters.  The  great  law  of  equiva- 
lence is  here  enforced — something  for  something. 

It  is  evident  that  a  regular  system  of  mutton  and  wool- 
growing  upon  such  lands  would  very  soon  produce  an  im- 
provement, and  that  these  lands  might  profitably  be 
brought  back  to  their  original  fertility,  and  to  a  much 
higher  market  value  than  they  have  ever  held.  Sheep-hus- 
bandry takes  the  preference  of  dairy -husbandry  for  this  pur- 
pose: First,  because  the  competition  in  the  latter  is  much 
greater;  in  fact,  there  is  properly  no  competition  in  sheep- 
husbandry  in  this  country;  for  the  whole  product  of  wool 
is  much  less  than  the  home  demand,  and  good  mutton  is 


VALUE    OF    MANURE.  425 

far  from  an  overstocked  market;  secondly,  because  mutton 
and  wool-growing,  as  we  have  seen,  make  a  much  smaller 
draft  upon  the  soil  than  dairy  husbandry,  and  may  return 
to  the  soil,  under  a  proper  system,  95  per  cent,  of  the  fertil- 
izing matter  of  all  the  feeding  stuffs  used. 

These  deteriorated  lands  may,  therefore,  be  rapidly  im- 
proved by  feeding  to  sheep  the  richer  foods  mentioned  in 
our  tables,  with  a  return  in  growth  and  fattening  of  sheep 
equal  to  the  cost  of  the  food,  and,  at  least,  80  per  cent,  of 
its  cost  returned  in  effective  fertilizers  to  the  soil.  Nitro- 
gen, potash,  and  phosphoric  acid  can  be  furnished  to  the 
soil  in  this  way  at  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  commercial  cost  of 
these  fertilizers.  And  another  important  point  is  seen  in 
the  fact  that  the  standard  of  quality  in  these  foods  can  much 
more  easily  be  determined  than  that  in  commercial  fertil- 
izers. When  one  ton  or  ten  tons  of  decorticated  cotton-seed 
meal,  linseed  meal,  malt  sprouts,  wheat  bran,  corn-meal,  or 
other  food,  is  fed  to  sheep  upon  the  land,  you  may  deter- 
mine, quite  accurately,  the  amount  of  each  of  these  impor- 
tant food  elements  added  to  the  soil ;  but  when  you  apply 
a  ton  of  commercial  fertilizer,  purchased  at  the  full  value 
of  a  proper  standard,  the  ordinary  farmer  knows  very  little 
of  what  he  really  adds  to  the  soil.  Under  a  proper  system 
of  feeding,  the  sheep  farmer  can  scarcely  err  in  applying 
fertilizers  to  his  soil  which  are  obtained  by  passing  rich 
foods  through  the  digestive  system  of  his  sheep.  This  will 
be  a  chemical  analysis  and  determination  which  he  may 
rely  upon  for  accuracy. 

Feeding  Green  Crops  on  the  Land. 

This  return  made  by  sheep  for  their  food,  in  manure, 
based  as  it  is  upon  reliable  German  experiments,  is  most 
encouraging  to  those  who  would  feed  sheep  for  the  recovery 
of  fertility.  This  result  follows  in  feeding  off  large  crops 
grown  upon  the  land,  such  as  turnip,  or  other  root  crop^^ 


426  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

clover,  vetches,  lye,  oats  and  peas,  ])eas  alone,  the  dififerent 
varieties  of  millet,  and  many  other  pjreen  crops.  The  clover, 
vetches,  rye,  oats,  peas,  millet,  etc.,  may  be  fed  over  several 
times  in  a  season;  as,  if  fed  off  when  a  few  inches  high, 
each  of  these  crops  will  spring  np  again,  on  good  land,  like 
pasture  grasses.  This  point  is  worthy  of  close  considera- 
tion m  feeding  for  the  renovation  of  worn-out  lands  in  the 
Eastern  States;  for  some  of  these  crops  may  be  raised  upon 
most  lands,  and  thus  furnish  green  pasturage  for  sheep; 
and  if  fed  off  within  hurdles,  in  a  manner  to  confine  the 
sheep  upon  small  spaces,  the  extra  grain  food  will  produce 
an  immediate  result  in  improving  the  second  or  future 
growth  of  the  green  crop.  These  portable  hurdles  are 
easily  moved,  and  the  sheep  may  be  passed  on  to  fresh 
ground  each  day,  not  allowing  them  to  eat  the  green  crop 
too  close.  In  this  way  the  land  may  be  made  to  furnish  the 
green  food  for  summer,  to  be  cropped  off  the  ground,  saving 
all  labor  of  feeding,  except  that  of  moving  the  hurdles, 
and  distributing  a  certain  quantity  of  linseed  meal,  corn  or 
other  gram  in  troughs,  daily,  for  each  sheep.  This  labor 
could  not  exceed  one-half  hour  per  day  for  fifty  sheep.  Let 
us  now  consider  the  crops  that  may  be  fed  off  green  by 
sheep. 

Winter  Rye. 

A  crop  of  winter  rye  would  succeed  for  this  purpose  prob- 
ably better  than  most  other  crops,  and  might  be  fed  off, 
successively,  for  the  whole  season,  and  then  furnish  pasture, 
or  mature  a  crop,  the  second  season.  It  does  better  for  pas- 
turing than  cutting  for  soiling,  for  which  it  is  often  used ; 
because  in  pasturing  it  will  be  kejit  cropped  off  too  low  for 
the  seed  panicle  to  start,  and  thus  keep  up  a  constant 
growth,  whilst  in  soiling  it  is  seldom  cut  before  some  of  the 
seed-heads  are  formed,  and  these  plants  will  not  grow  again, 
and,  therefore,  the  second  cutting  will  be  small,  compared 
to  the  first.     Rye  furnishes  a  good  pasturing  crop,  also ; 


GREEX    CROPS    FOR    SHEEP.  427 

because,  being  sown  in  the  fall,  it  gets  well-rooted,  and 
when  pastured  early  in  the  spring,  starts  up  again  at  once. 
If  the  soil  is  in  such  heart  as  to  grow  a  good  crop  of  rye, 
it  will  furnish  a  large  amount  of  sheep  pasturage — six  acres 
may  be  fed  over  continually  by  50  sheep  during  the  whole 
season.  As  soon  as  they  have  passed  over  the  field  between 
hurdles,  they  may  be  brought  back  to  the  starting  point, 
and  go  over  it  again.  It  is  evident  that,  if  each  of  the 
sheep  are  given  four  ounces  of  linseed-meal,  and  the  same 
amount  of  Indian  corn,  per  day,  during  the  season,  although 
light  feed,  this  six  acres  will  be  qualified  for  raising  a  good 
grain-crop  the  following  season,  and  that  the  gain  in  the 
sheep  will  pay  for  this  extra  food,  with  a  good  margin  for 
other  expenses.  Liebig  has  stated  that  rye,  when  cut  often 
during  the  first  year,  will  mature  a  crop  the  following  year, 
and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that,  if  properly  pastured,  it 
will  also  continue  through  the  following  seasons,  which 
must  render  it  a  favorite  crop  for  feeding  off  on  the  land, 
as  it  must  give  pasture  one-third  longer  than  a  spring  crop. 

Winter  Vetch. 

The  vetch  has  not  been  so  thoroughly  tried  in  the  United 
States  as  it  deserves,  as,  where  it  succeeds,  it  has  many 
qualities  to  recommend  it;  but  having  been  raised  in  Can- 
ada, north  of  Montreal,  at  latitude  46,  over  a  belt  of  terri- 
tory from  Lake  Erie  of  more  than  two  hundred  miles,  it  is 
reasonable  to  infer  that  it  is  suitable  for  the  territory  of 
this  country  from  New  York  to  Oregon — that  it  has  proba- 
bly nearly  as  wide  a  range  as  clover  ;  in  fact,  Nuttall  enu- 
merates some  five  species  of  the  vetch  as  natives  of  the 
United  States,  some  being  identical  with  those  found  in 
Europe — as  the  Vicia  sylvatica^  growing  on  the  borders  of 
woods,  and  banks  of  the  Missouri  river ;  the  Vicia  crocea, 
growing  in  a  wild  state  in  bushy  meadows,  and  sometimes 
troublesome  in  gardens  in  Pennsylvania  and  other  Middle 


428  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

States.  He  also  enumerates  Vicia  sativa,  the  most  valua- 
ble species  grown  by  English  farmers.  So  that  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that  the  vetch,  or  tare,  can  be  profitably 
grown  in  all  the  Eastern,  Middle  and  Western  States. 

English  farmers  regard  the  vetch  as  only  second  to  clover, 
because  of  its  nutritiousness,  and  the  relish  with  which  all 
kinds  of  stock  eat  it,  as  well  as  because  oi  its  easy  cultiva- 
tion. It  is  the  favorite  crop  of  the  sheep-farmer  for  feed- 
ing off  on  the  land ;  and,  like  clover,  will  furnish  pasturage 
upon  which  sheep  maybe  folded,  at  successive  periods,  dur- 
ing the  whole  season. 

For  this  purpose  the  winter  vetch  is  chosen,  because,  being 
established  over  winter,  the  roots  ramify  more  extensively, 
and  produce  a  larger  amount  of  fodder  than  the  spring 
vetch,  and  it  has  been  found,  on  several  tests,  to  be  more 
nutritious  per  Aveight.  This  winter  vetch  would  be  even 
better  for  bringing  forward  sheep  and  lambs  in  summer 
than  winter  rye,  because  it  is  much  richer  in  albuminoids. 
Dr.  Voelcker  found  the  green  food  to  contain  82.16  per  cent, 
water;  3.56  albuminoids;  12.74  carbo-hydrates  and  fat, 
and  1.54  per  cent,  ash  ;  and,  when  deprived  of  water,  it  con- 
tained 20  per  cent,  albuminoids — thus  being  richer  than 
clover.  It  possesses  all  the  elements,  in  due  proportion,  for 
growing  lambs  and  fattening  sheep.  This  food,  being  so 
rich  in  nitrogen,  it  might  be  fed  with  Indian  corn  to  better 
effect  in  bringing-  up  a  worn  soil  than  rye  or  millet.  It  is 
often  grown  upon  rhe  heavy  clay  loams  in  England;  and  a 
rich  clay  loam  will  produce  maximum  crops. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  what  an  important  agency  this 
crop  may  become,  when  fed  off  by  sheej),  in  recovering  the 
worn  farms  of  New  England  and  the  Middle  States.  It  is 
not  better,  with  the  same  weight  of  crop,  than  clover  for 
this  purpose ;  but  can  be  grown  upon  land  where  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  seed  to  clover,  and  this  crop  may  be  the  means  of 
fitting  the  land  for  the  growth  of  clover.     Rye  is  the  easiest 


GREEN   CROPS   FOR  SHEEP.  429 

crop  to  begin  with,  which,  being  fed  off  by  sheep,  with  the 
addition  of  linseed-meal  and  oats,  corn,  or  some  nitrogen- 
ous food,  the  land  would  be  well-prejiared  for  the  winter 
vetch,  and  tlie  winter  vetch  would  prej^are  it  for  clover,  and 
clover  would  prepare  it  for  any  crop.  The  land  need  not 
be  plowed  more  than  4K  to  5  inches  deep  for  vetches ;  but 
should  be  worked  into  a  very  fine  tilth  before  the  seed  is 
drilled  in,  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  per  acre.  The  time 
for  seeding  is  the  same  as  for  wheat. 

The  spring  vetch  is  also  much  grown  in  Europe,  and  may 
be  grown  in  this  country  where  spring  grain  succeeds  better 
than  winter;  but  the  spring  vetch  should  be  planted  as 
early  as  the  condition  of  the  soil  will  permit.  A  frost 
occurring  after  the  seed  is  sown  will  not  injure  the  plant 
any  more  than  it  does  the  pea.  On  early  land,  the  spring 
vetch  may  be  brought  forward  so  as  to  furnish  pasture  early 
in  June;  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  feed  it  close,  as 
this  will  much  retard  its  future  growth. 

Peas  as  a  Pasture  Crop. 

As  we  are  considering  what  crops  may  be  grown  for 
feeding  sheup  in  summer,  and  at  the  same  time  result  in 
the  improvement  of  the  soil,  we  must  not  omit  the  common 
field  pea.  This  crop  has  not  been  adequately  appreciated 
as  a  renovator  of  the  soil.  It  has  been  little  used  as  a 
green  pasture  crop,  either  in  this  country  or  in  Eurojie, 
most  of  our  farmers  thinking  it  only  adapted  for  being  cut 
at  maturity.  But  when  sown  thickly  upon  properly-pre- 
pared land,  and  fed  off  at  six  to  eight  inches  high,  it  starts 
again  immediately,  and  makes  a  vigorous  new  growth,  the 
ground  being  more  closely  covered  the  second  than  the  first 
time.  This  has  been  our  experience  on  several  trials.  But 
the  sheep  must  not  be  permitted  to  feed  it  closely,  and 
should,  therefore,  be  passed  over  the  ground  before  tiny 
have  time  to  do  this.     If  the  season  is  favorable,  peas  may 


430  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

be  fed  over  three  times,  and  thus  yield  a  large  amount  of 
green  food.  If  the  season  is  likely  to  be  too  dry,  the 
second  feeding  should  be  commenced  when  the  peas  are  in 
blossom.  It  has  then  the  largest  amount  of  nutriment, 
and  of  the  best  quality.  The  nutritive  ratio  of  peas,  vetches, 
and  the  clovers,  each  at  the  first  blossom,  is  nearly  the 
same;  they  all  stand  in  the  first  rank  of  fodder  plants, 
especially  for  growing  young  animals,  as  they  are  all  rich  in 
the  elements  to  grow  the  muscles,  bones,  and  nervous 
S3'Stem.  Peas  will  flourish  upon  a  variety  of  soils,  either 
light  or  heavy;  dry  clay  soils  bring  large  crops.  The  land 
does  not  require  to  be  rich;  but  a  soil  containing  abund- 
ance of  lime  and  potash  succeeds  best.  The  pea  plant  is  a 
large  appropriator  of  lime  and  potash,  and  the  seeds  of 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid.  Land  highly  manured  grows 
more  vine  than  grain ;  but  lime,  wood  ashes,  and  bones  are 
quite  appropriate  fertilizers.  The  land  should  be  in  fine 
tilth  and  smooth,  and  peas  are  best  planted  with  a  drill 
which  will  deposit  the  seed  at  an  even  depth  of  2%  inches, 
at  the  rate  of  2%  bushels  per  acre.  If  further  practice 
should  discourage  feeding  the  pea  crop  off  upon  the  land, 
then  it  should  be  grown  and  cut  green  at!the  time  of  first 
blossom,  and  fed  to  sheep  between  hurdles  on  parts  of  the 
same  field  which  have  been  cut.  This  will  require  little 
carriage,  and  all  the  valuable  manure  will  be  saved;  but  we 
think  that  it  will  be  found  practically  as  safe  to  feed  off 
peas  as  winter  rye.  The  pea  may  be  planted  as  early  as 
the  land  can  be  tilled  in  spring,  as  it  is  not  injured  by 
frost ;  and  heavy  lands  should  be  plowed  in  the  fall,  so  as 
to  be  ready  to  work  as  soon  as  a  few  inches  of  the  surface 
is  dry  enough  to  be  made  mellow.  Peas  will  furnish 
pasturage  for  sheep  in  dry  weather  the  last  of  May  or  first 
of  June  in  latitude  40*^  to  43^^.  A  variation  of  this  pea 
crop  is  to  sow  one-third  oats  with  the  peas — that  is,  two 
bushels  of  peas  and  one  bushel  of  oats  per  acre.    This  will 


GREEN   CROPS   FOR   SHEEP.  431 

generally  produce  a  larger  yield  of  green  food  than  peas 
alone  or  oats  alone,  and  the  combined  crop  may  be  pastured 
as  early  as  peas  alone. 

Oats  are  an  important  crop  for  pasturing  when  sown 
alone.  The  oat  is  also  frost-proof  in  the  spring,  and  may 
be  drilled  in  the  first  moment  that  the  land  is  fitted  for  it, 
and,  on  warm,  early  soil,  will  be  six  inches  high  and  strong 
by  May  20th ;  and,  on  being  eaten  off  by  the  sheep,  will 
start  anew  at  once.  If  left  till  the  seed  head  is  formed, 
there  will  be  no  second  growth.  The  struggle  in  all  plants 
is  to  perfect  the  seed  ;  and  most  of  our  annual  plants,  if 
cut  when  small,  will  grow  again,  and  when  having  a  strong 
and  vigorous  root  will  push  on  the  second  growth  very 
rapidly. 

The  second  feeding  of  the  green  oat  crop  should  be  when 
the  plant  has  reached  the  flowering  stage ;  and  if  the  crop 
be  rank,  sheep  may  waste  too  much  of  it  when  fed  off  upon 
the  land.  If  mown  and  fed  to  them  in  racks,  it  will  have 
the  largest  amount  of  nutriment  when  the  seed  is  in  the 
milk.  But  the  sheep,  at  that  stage,  are  not  inclined  to  eat 
the  whole  stalk  unless  tempted  by  a  small  allowance  of 
meal  upon  the  left  stems.  As  we  have  seen,  this  extra 
grain  food  will  be  refunded  by  extra  growth,  and  the  knd 
will  get  the  benefit  of  the  enriched  manure.  This  is  the 
end  towards  which  sheep-feeding  on  worn  lands  should 
point.  The  oat  has  the  advantage  of  being  adapted  to 
nearly  all  soils,  and  it  may  be  the  best  crop  with  which  to 
begin  the  improvement. 

Millet  for  Pasture. 

Millet  is  grown  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  more  or  less, 
both  for  the  seed  and  fodder.  It  requires  dry,  warm  land 
to  produce  the  best  crop,  and  the  soil  must  be  made  very 
fine,  or  the  seed,  which  is  small,  will  not  grow.  In  a  fine, 
rich  loam  millet  produces  a  very  large  growth  of  excellent 


432  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

fodder.  When  the  land  is  appropriate,  it  springs  up 
rapidly,  and  soon  covers  the  ground.  AVhen  it  reaches  the 
height  of  eight  inclies,  and  its  root  has  become  Avell  estab- 
lished, sheep  may  be  folded  upon  it,  and  crop  off  four  or 
five  inches.  The  hurdles  should  be  moved  each  day,  to 
prevent  its  being  eaten  too  close.  It  will  spring  up  anew, 
and  more  completely  cover  the  ground  than  before.  If 
care  is  taken  it  may  be  folded  over  three  or  four  times  in  a 
season,  at  from  14  to  20  days  apart.  This  food  is  highly 
relished  by  sheep,  because  the  leaves  and  stems,  at  that 
stage  of  growth,  are  very  tender  and  succulent.  Small 
pieces  may  be  sown  at  different  times,  so  as  to  be  ready  for 
feeding  one  after  the  other.  A  good  crop  will  produce,  at 
three  or  four  feedings,  ten  tons  of  green  food  on  an  acre, 
and  pasture  50  sheep  25  to  30  days.  There  are  several 
varieties  of  millet,  but  the  common  {Paiiicum  milliaceum), 
Hungarian  grass  {Panicum  Germanicum),  and  golden  mil- 
let are  the  kinds  most  grown.  The  latter  produces  the 
largest  growth,  and  for  pasturing  may  be  found  the  most 
profitable. 

We  have  given  these  numerous  annuals  which  may  be 
cultivated  as  pasture  plants  for  sheep,  to  show  the  re- 
sources of  sheep  feeders  in  providing  green  food  which  may 
be  eaten  off  by  the  sheep  during  the  summer ;  but  we  do  not 
mean  to  set  these  annuals  up  as  preferable  to  the  perennial 
grasses  and  the  biennial  clovers.  These  annuals  are  only  to 
be  used  to  assist  in  fitting  the  land  for  growing  profitable 
crops  of  the  perennial  grasses  and  clovers.  The  perennial 
grasses  and  the  clovers  are  the  sheet-anchor  of  successful 
stock-feeding,  for  they  yield  successive  crops  without 
annual  labor.  But  the  annual  grasses  are  often  necessary 
in  the  preparation  of  the  soil  for  the  permanent  ones. 

Roots  for  Sheep-Feeding. 

The  question  of  economy  in  the  production  of  root  crops 
for  stock-feed  in  cr  in  this  countrv  has  never  been  settled  be- 


GREEN"  CROPS  FOR  SHEEP.  433 

yond  grave  doubts  in  the  minds  of  judicious  farmers.  The 
rigor  of  our  northern  winter  climate  is  not  favorable  to 
out-door  feeding  of  roots ;  but  the  modern  improvement 
of  warm,  well-ventilated  stables  has  done  much  to  obviate 
this  objection,  so  far  as  temperature  of  stable-feeding  is 
concerned.  But  we  cannot  adopt  the  English  practice  of 
feeding  off  turnips  and  beets  on  the  land;  yet  many  of 
the  most  intelligent  English  farmers  think  it  much  better 
for  the  sheep  to  receive  their  roots  in  sheds,  and  that  their 
better  thrift  will  pay  for  lifting  and  carting  the  roots.  We 
think,  for  sheep  feeding  in  our  northern  climate,  the  most 
profitable  use  to  make  of  roots  is  to  feed  them  off  on  the 
land  during  October  and  November,  before  the  weather 
becomes  too  cold.  The  turnip  and  beet  may  be  so  matured 
as  to  be  quite  ready  for  feeding  in  October ;  and  sheep  may 
then  be  folded  upon  them,  with  a  little  late-growth  clover, 
and  thus  continue  succulent  food  of  the  best  quality  to  the 
beginning  of  winter.  The  comparatively  high  price  of 
labor  has  usually  been  regarded  as  fatal  to  the  profitable 
production  of  roots  here;  but  Hon.  Harris  Lewis,  and 
many  others,  have  declared  that  beets  or  turnips  can  be 
raised,  lifted,  and  stored  for  six  cents  per  bushel ;  and  at 
this  cost  of  labor  they  must  be  profitstble  food  for  sheep, 
especially  as  a  small  ration  of  green  food  in  winter.  But 
there  is  a  plant,  belonging  to  the  same  class  as  turnijos  and 
cabbages,  which  is  extensively  raised  in  Germany  and 
France  as  a  food  for  stock  and  as  an  oil  plant.  It  is  a  bien- 
nial, and  has  a  spindle-sha]")0(l.  stringy  root,  running  deep, 
instead  of  being  bulbous,  like  the  turnips,  and  the  value 
of  the  crop  is  in  its  succulent  stalks,  leaves,  and  seed. 
This  is 

Eape  (Brassica  napus), 

and  is  grown  upon  the  same  sort  of  land  as  turnips,  beets, 
etc.     Rape  has  both  a  winter  and  spring  variety.     If  the 
winter  variety  can  be  cultivated  here,  it  will  furnish  excel- 
19 


434  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

lent  and  abundant  food  for  sheep  and  other  stock  in  May, 
June  and  July.  It  is  so  hardy  as  not  to  be  injured  in  the 
coldest  parts  of  Germany.  Professor  Brewer,  who  exam- 
ined this  crop  with  care  in  Germany,  believed  it  well 
adapted  to  the  United  States,  and  highly  recommends  it. 
It  seems  to  have  a  great  superiority  over  the  turnip  in  fat- 
tening qualities.  It  is  exceedingly  succulent,  having,  in  its 
green  state,  87  percent,  water;  albuminoids  3.13,  carbo- 
hydrates 8.20,  ash  1.60  per  cent.  When  deprived  of  water, 
it  contains  24.19  per  cent,  of  albuminoids;  being  richer  in 
this  important  element  than  clover,  and  twice  as  rich  as  the 
Swede  turnip.  The  American  edition  of  Johnson's  ^*  En- 
cyclopaedia "  states  that  this  crop  has  been  tried  in  Xew 
York  and  New  England,  and  found  to  stand  the  winters 
well.  Mr.  Samuel  TJiorne,  of  Dutchess  County,  N.  Y., 
writes  that,  in  1863,  he  folded  lambs  upon  it  very  late  in 
the  fall,  and  that  frost  did  not  injure  this  plant.  It  pro- 
duces, under  good  tillage,  extraordinary  crops.  '  Mr.  Blackie, 
an  English  writer  upon  the  "  Improvement  of  Small 
Farms,"  says  that,  when  well  manured,  the  stalks  are  juicy, 
and  grow  to  the  height  of  from  five  to  six  feet;  and  that 
he  believes  an  acre,  with  the  addition  of  some  straw  to 
counteract  its  great  succulence,  will  keep  30  head  of  milch 
cows  in  full  milk  for  a  month.  It  is,  no  doubt,  an  over- 
estimate, as  it  would  be  equivalent  to  keeping  a  cow  900 
da3's  on  the  crop  of  160  rods  of  land,  or  180  sheep  30  days 
on  an  acre,  or  33M  sheep  one  day  upon  one  rod  of  land. 
If  we  can  estimate  its  capacity  to  feed  cows  and  sheep  at 
one-half  these  figures,  it  is  an  exceedingly  desirable  crop. 
It  is  generally  regarded  in  Germany,  and  in  all  parts  of 
England,  as  one  of  the  very  best  crops  for  fattening  sheep ; 
and  as  it  is  ready  for  feeding  June  and  July,  or  if  fed  ear- 
lier m  spring  would  give  its  largest  crop  later  in  the  season 
— say  September — it  must  prove  to  be  one  of  the  most 
profitable  green  crop  that  can    be  raised,  and   especially 


GREEN"  CROPS  FOR  SHEEP.  435 

adapted  to  the  improvement  of  the  land.  Its  seed  has  long 
been  used  for  the  production  of  rape  oil;  and  the  rape 
cake,  so  much  used  by  English  feeders,  is  the  refuse  of  the 
seed  after  the  oil  has  been  expressed.  Many  estimate  the 
labor  in  producing  a  crop  of  rape  as  about  the  same  as  that 
required  for  a  crop  of  wheat.  There  can  be  no  doubt  of  its 
success  on  the  deep  rich  prairie  soils  of  the  West ;  and  when 
stock-feeding  on  these  lands  shall  be  conducted  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preserving  their  fertility,  as  well  as  for  profit,  this  is 
likely  to  become  one  of  the  most  important  crops.  It  has 
greatly  the  advantage  of  the  turnip,  beet,  or  carrot,  on  ac- 
count of  its  richness  in  albuminoids,  thus  supplementing 
this  deficiency  in  the  corn  crop,  and  on  account  of  its  easier 
cultivation.  Being  a  deep-rooted  plant,  it  will  recover 
very  quickly  after  feeding  off  by  sheep,  and  soon  fur- 
nish a  second  growth  of  stalks  and  leaves  for  the  same 
purpose.     It  is  certainly  worthy  of  a  careful  trial. 

Ensilage  for  Winter  Feeding. 

Sheep  are  extremely  fond  of  succulent  food,  and  one  of 
the  difficulties  encountered  by  the  sheep-feeders  during  our 
long  winters  is  the  want  of  a  due  proportion  of  green  food. 
The  recent  invention  of  the  improved  silo,  for  the  preser- 
vation of  green,  succulent  food  for  winter  use,  will  wholly 
remedy  this  defect  in  winter  sheep-feeding.  Every  descrip- 
tion of  green  crops  may  be  preserved  in  silo,  for  winter 
use  ;  and  as  the  sheep  is  particularly  fond  of  variety  in  its 
food,  and  will  travel  over  a  large  field,  most  industriously 
selecting  the  greatest  variety  within  its  reach,  the  silo  ena- 
bles the  feeder  to  gratify  this  appetite  of  the  sheep.  If  a 
large  variety  of  grasses  is  sown  upon  our  meadows,  they 
may  all  go  into  the  silo  together;  thus  not  only  gratifying 
the  appetite,  but  greatly  adding  to  the  thrift  of  the  sheep. 
All  the  crops  we  have  mentioned  as  appropriate  for  feed- 
ing off  upon  the  land  are  also  appropriate  for  presei'ving  in 


436  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

•silo  for  winter  use.  This  green  food  in  winter  will  enable 
the  sheep-farmer  of  the  older  States  to  make  as  good 
progress  in  winter-feeding  as  the  sheep-farmers  of  Europe 
with  the  aid  of  succulent  roots.  The  great  advantage  of 
turnips  for  sheep  in  winter  is,  that  they  counteract  the 
effect  of  the  dry  food  given. 

A  most  important  consideration  in  favor  of  the  silo  is, 
that  the  feeder  may  not  only  give  variety  in  the  ration,  but 
he  may  give  a  ration  containing  the  proper  proportion  of 
food  elements.  The  silo  has  been  discussed  in  this  country 
almost  wholly  as  a  means  of  preserving  fodder-corn  ;  but 
as  fodder-corn  is  only  a  partial  food,  and  must  be  fed  with 
some  more  nitrogenous  food  to  produce  a  satisfactory  re- 
sult, the  silo  could  only  be  a  very  partial  success  if  it  only 
preserved  this  one  green  food.  Its  great  result  must  be 
looked  for  in  enabling  the  feeder  to  mingle  in  the  silo  sev- 
eral different  green  foods  which  unitedly  contain  the  food 
elements  in  the  proper  proportion  for  growing  or  fattening 
animals.  As  sheep  will  fatten  very  fast  upon  a  good  pasture 
which  contains  a  variety  of  the  best  grasses,  so  they  should 
gain  as  rapidly  when  fed  from  a  silo  upon  green  fodder-corn, 
clover,  millet,  rape,  peas,  oats,  etc.,  containing  a  combination 
of  the  same  food  element  in  as -digestible  a  condition.  It  is  a 
common  opinion  among  farmers  (which  we  do  not  wholly 
share),  that  grain  is  the  most  expensive  food,  and  tliat 
sheep  are  kept  much  cheaper  upon  pasture  or  hay  than 
upon  hay  and  grain.  It  is  only  necessary  to  feed  grain 
because  hay  is  less  digestible  than  grass.  Now,  the  silo,  if 
successful,  will  enable  sheep  to  be  fed  upon  grass  in  as 
succulent  a  state  in  winter  as  in  summer.  This  may 
render  the  older  States,  which  liave  reached  a  diminished 
capacity  for  grain  raising,  independent  of  Western  grain 
in  the  production  of  meat.  These  States  are  still  well 
adapted  to  the  production  of  the  grasses  and  every  green 
food  required  for  winter  feeding,  when  preserved  in  silo ; 


MANAGING    A    FLOCK.  437 

and  as  green,  succulent  food  goes  much  farther  than  the 
same  food  dried  into  hay,  so  the  capacity  of  these  States 
for  the  production  of  mutton  and  other  meat  will  be  vastly 
increased. 

Ensilage  being  nearly  as  succulent  as  the  fresh  green 
food  itself,  root  crops  will  become  much  less  important. 
When  the  silo  shall  come  into  full  use,  sheep  will  really  be 
fed  the  same  winter  and  summer  ;  and  progress  in  fattening 
will  be  nearly  the  same,  a  little  extra  food  being  given  in 
the  winter,  to  keep  up  the  animal  heat.  This  succulent 
winter  food  will  have  an  important  effect  in  improving 
early  lambs,  causing  the  ewe  to  yield  more  milk;  and  the 
lambs  may  make  as  good  progress  as  if  their  dams  were 
upon  pasture. 

Managing  a  Flock. 

The  mode  of  conducting  a  breeding  flock  for  profit  will 
vary  according  to  locality  and  cost  of  food.  Near  the  large 
Eastern  markets,  and  on  land  upon  which  sheep  are  kept 
as  the  best  compensation  for  the  food  consumed,  the  ram 
lambs  of  the  flock  will  principally  be  disposed  of  at  a  few 
months  old,  as  affording  better  profit  at  this  than  at  any 
subsequent  period.  The  forty-pound  fat  lamb  costs  less  in 
food  than  any  forty  pounds  of  growth  added  afterwards, 
and  brings  about  three  prices  per  pound.  If,  then,  a  flock 
of  common  ewes  is  being  crossed  with  a  pure-blood  South- 
down or  Cotswold  ram,  for  the  purpose  of  laying  the 
foundation  and  building  up  an  improved  breeding  flock,  it 
will  be  profitable  to  keep  only  the  ewe  lambs — grade  rams 
should  never  be  kept  for  breeding,  but  grade  ewes  will  be 
a  great  improvement  over  common  ones  when  bred  to  a 
ram  of  the  same  blood  as  their  sire.  So,  in  grading  up  a 
flock  towards  a  pure-blood  mutton  breed,  about  half  of  the 
lambs  each  year  may  be  sold  for  the  early  market.  Each 
generation  will  approximate  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  pure 
blood  until  they  are  practically  equal  for  mutton  or  wool. 


438  FEEDING    AIs-IMALS. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  expense  of  grading  up  this  flock 
over  that  of  common  breeding  is  hardly  worth  considering  ; 
that,  in  fact,  the  ram  or  wether  lambs  marketed  each  year 
will  be  enhanced  in  value  much  more  than  the  cost  of  the 
pure-blood  ram  over  a  common  one.  But  while  these  ewe 
lambs  are  growing  up  to  breeding  age,  the  defective  ones 
must  be  weeded  out,  and  not  permitted  to  breed.  Only 
those  of  good  form  and  prime  feeders  should  be  kept  for 
breeding.  The  first  requisite  of  a  profitable  animal  is  a 
good  appetite  and  active  digestion.  A  habitually  mincing 
eater  should  always  be  discarded,  whatever  beauty  of  ex- 
ternal form  it  may  possess.  Ko  profit  ever  comes  from  a 
slow  feeder.  The  breeding  ewe,  if  she  raises  good  lambs, 
must  secrete  a  liberal  quantity  of  milk,  and  this  can  only 
be  done  by  a  large  consumption  and  digestion  of  food. 
The  young  ewes  should  not  be  bred  before  14  to  16  months 
old ;  earlier  breeding  is  not  conducive  to  vigor  of  constitu- 
tion. As  the  flock  increases  in  numbers,  greater  care  can 
constantly  be  given  to  selection  of  the  ewes  to  be  bred — 
breeding  always  from  the  best.  The  third  cross  will  give 
ewes  of  Vs  pure  blood,  and  tliis  can  be  accomplished  in  four 
years;  two  years  more  would  give  ||  blood;  so  that  six 
years  would  grade  up  common  ewes  to  fifteen-sixteenths 
blood  Southdown,  Cotswold,  or  other  pure  blood.  It  is 
not,  therefore,  long  to  wait  for  a  thoroughly-improved 
flock,  which  will  practically  give  all  the  profit  of  the 
highest  blood.  Even  the  half  and  three-fourths  blood 
usually  feed  about  as  well  as  the  higher  blood.  After  the 
fifth  cross  with  pure-blood  rams,  or  thirty-one-thirty- 
second  part  of  the  pure  blood,  the  rams  of  this  cross  may 
be  considered  prepotent,  and  may  be  used  for  breeding — 
often  even  the  cross  below  this  will  be  found  prepotent  as 
males.  The  English  Short-horn  Herd  Book  admits  four 
crosses  to  record  as  Short-horns  ;  and  the  same  rule  would 
hold  with  sheep.     But  we  think  breeding  together  grades 


MAKAGING   A   FLOCK.  439 

of  low  degree  tends  to  bring  pure  blood  into  discredit,  and 
is  unprofitable. 

Eegularity  in  Feeding. 

All  feeders  who  have  studied  the  habits  of  the  animals 
they  feed,  have  discerned  that  they  take  special  note  of 
time,  and  are  disappointed  if  the  time  is  delayed  only  a  few 
minutes.  It  is  a  cardinal  point  to  observe  great  regularity 
in  time  and  quantity  for  feeding  sheep.  It  has  been 
observed  that  a  careful  and  regular  feeder  will  produce  a 
better  result  with  inferior  food,  given  at  equal  times  and 
in  even  quantity,  than  an  irregular  feeder  as  to  time  and 
quantity  with  the  best  quality  of  food.  It  is  said  that  "  the 
master's  eye  is  worth  two  pair  of  hands,"  and  it  may  as 
truly  be  said  that  **the  shepherd's  eye,  which  takes  note  of 
the  individual  wants  of  his  flock,  is  worth  a  large  amount 
of  carelessly-given  food." 

The  late  John  Johnston,  of  Geneva,  jN".  Y.,  to  whom  we 
have  before  alluded  as  a  successful  cattle-feeder,  has  also 
been,  under  the  old  system,  a  successful  sheep-feeder.  In 
a  letter  to  the  Hon.  H.  S.  Randall,  in  1862,  he  describes  his 
common  mode  of  winter  feeding.  Mr.  Johnston  was  a  very 
successful  wheat  and  barley  raiser  upon  a  300-acre  clay- 
loam  farm,  completely  tile  drained.  He  had  large  quanti- 
ties of  straw,  and  studied  how  to  turn  this  into  the  largest 
quantity  of  manure.     He  says  : 

^'  I  generally  buy  my  sheep  in  October.  Then  I  have  a 
pasture  to  put  them  on,  and  they  gain  a  good  deal  before 
winter  sets  in.  I  have  generally  put  them  in  the  yards 
about  the  1st  of  December.  For  the  last  23  years  I  have 
fed  straw  the  first  two  or  two  and  a  half  months,  a  pound 
of  oil-cake,  meal,  or  grain,  to  each  sheep.  When  I  com- 
mence feeding  hay,  if  it  is  good,  early-cut  clover,  I 
generally  reduce  the  cake,  meal,  or  grain  one-half;   but 


4i0  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

that  depends  on  the  condition  of  the  sheep.  If  they  are 
not  pretty  fat,  I  continue  the  full-feed  of  cake,  meal,  or 
grain,  with  their  clover,  and  on  both  they  fatten  wonder- 
fully fast.  This  year  (1862-C3)  I  fed  buckwheat,  a  pound 
to  each  per  day — half  in  the  morning  and  half  at  4  p.  m. — 
wibh  wheat  and  barley  straw.  I  found  the  sheep  gained  a 
little  over  one  pound  each  per  week.  It  never  was  profit- 
able for  me  to  commence  fattening  lean  sheep.  Sheep 
should  be  tolerably  fair  mutton  wlien  j^arded.  I  keep  their 
yards  and  sheds  well  littered  with  straw. 

"Last  year  I  only  fed  straw  one  month.  I  fed  each 
sheep  one  pound  of  buckwheat.  From  the  20th  of  October 
to  the  1st  of  March  they  gained  JH  lbs.  each  per  week. 
They  were  Merinos — but  not  those  with  the  large  cravats 
around  their  necks.  I  have  fed  sheep  for  the  Eastern 
markets  for  more  than  30  years,  and  I  always  made  a  profit 
on  tliem,  except  in  1841-42 ;  I  then  fed  at  a  loss ;  and  it 
was  a  tight  squeeze  in  1860-Gl  to  get  their  manure  for 
profit.  ISome  years  I  have  made  largely.  Taking  all 
together,  it  has  been  a  good  business  for  me." 

This  account  of  sheep-feeding  is  on  a  different  plan  from 
the  one  we  have  been  considering,  of  making  it  a  sys- 
tematic business — the  feeder  breeding  his  own  sheep.  But 
we  give  it  to  show  wliat  a  careful  feeder  may  do  on  a  grain 
farm  to  keep  up  its  fertility.  Mr.  Johnston's  gains  per 
week  are  small  besides  those  we  shall  give  of  feeding  the 
mutton  breeds  ;  but  his  results  are  remarkable,  considering 
the  fact  that  the  sheep  he  bought  were  those  of  slow 
growth  and  late  maturity.  Ilis  success  in  winter-feeding 
on  that  plan  was  largely  owing  to  his  custom  of  buying  in 
October,  and  giving  tliem  good  pasture  for  some  two 
months.  His  straw-feeding  would  also  have  been  much 
less  successful  had  he  not  fed  oil-cake  with  it.  The  very 
nitrogenous  oil-cake  balanced  the  carbonaceous  straw,  and 
this  oil-cake  greatly  enriched  the  manure. 


mai^agixg  a  flock.  441 

English  Sheep-Feeding. 

Sheep  husbandry  has  become  so  important  an  element  of 
our  agriculture,  that  the  American  shepherd  should  make 
a  careful  study  of  the  methods  of  feeding  adopted  in  other 
countries  -where  this  branch  of  husbandry  is  successfully 
carried  on.  In  growing  mutton  and  wool  together,  Eng- 
land has  been  pre-eminently  successful,  and  her  method  of 
feeding  must  be  well  considered.  It  is  hardly  to  be  ex- 
pected that  the  iVmerican  feeder  can  use  precisely  the  same 
crops  as  the  English  farmer  to  feed  his  flocks  ;  but  he  may, 
at  least,  find  substitutes  which  are  better  suited  to  our  soil 
and  climate,  and  have  the  same  nutritive  value.  We  shall 
give  some  of  the  best-authenticated  experiments  of  English 
feeders,  that  may  serve  to  give  a  clear  idea  of  their  plan  of 
winter  feeding — a  period  attended  with  more  obstacles 
than  any  other,  as  the  summer  produces  Nature's  best 
ration  for  sheep — the  grasses. 

Experiments  with  Roots,  Grain  and  Grass. 

The  experiments  recorded  in  Mr.  Robert  Smith's  essay 
on  "The  Management  of  Sheep" — for  which  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society  granted  him  a  prize  in  1847 — are  full 
and  carefully  made,  and  represent  the  effect  of  the  most 
commonly  adopted  ration,  and  many  important  variations 
of  it. 

Experiment  1. — Eight  lambs  were  weighed  on  the  20th 
December,  1842,  and  placed  upon  turnip  land  to  consume 
the  turnips  on  the  field  where  they  grew ;  and  being 
supplied  with  all  the  cut  swedes  they  would  eat,  were 
found  to  consume,  on  an  average,  23K  lbs.  per  head,  per 
day.  They  were  again  weighed  April  3d  (15  weeks),  and 
gained  25^  lbs.  each. 

Ex.  2. — Same  day,  eight  lambs  were  placed  in  a  grass 
paddock,  under  same  regulations,  and  found  to  consume 


442  FEEDING  ANIMALS. 

19  lbs.  of  turnips  per  day,  and  gained,  in  15  weeks,  26M 
lbs.  each. 

Ex.  3. — Same  day,  eight  lambs  were  placed  alongsiae 
No.  2,  and  allowed  to  run  in  and  out  of  an  open  shed 
during  the  day,  but  were  shut  up  at  night.  They  had  half 
a  pound  of  mixed  oil-cake  and  peas  per  day,  and  ate 
besides  203^  lbs.  of  turnips,  and  gained  33K  lbs.  each. 

Ex.  4. — Same  day,  eight  lambs  were  placed  under  same 
conditions  as  No.  3,  but  supplied  with  one  pound  of  mixed 
grain  (oats,  barley,  beans)  per  day.  They  consumed,  during 
the  ten  following  weeks,  20  lbs.  turnips  per  day;  were 
weighed  February  2Sth,  and  had  gained  263^  lbs.,  average. 

Ex.  5. — Eight  lambs  were  placed  in  a  warm  paddock, 
with  a  shed,  during  the  day,  but  were  shut  up  during  18 
hours,  and  fed  upon  IM  lbs.  of  mixed  grain  per  day.  They 
consumed  18K  lbs.  of  turnips  each,  and  in  ten  weeks 
gained  33)^  lbs.  each. 

Ex.  6. — January  5,  1843,  sixteen  shearlings  were  equally 
divided — eight  placed  in  a  grass  paddock,  and  given  each 
one  pound  of  mixed  grain  per  day,  ate  24  lbs.  of  Swedish 
turnips,  and  gained,  in  eight  weeks,  21/^  lbs.  each. 

Ex.  7. — The  other  eight  shearlings  were  placed  along- 
side No.  6,  were  allowed  an  open  shed  during  the  day,  and 
were  shut  in  at  night,  had  one  pound  of  mixed  grain, 
consumed  203^  lbs.  of  turnips,  and  gained,  in  eight  weeks, 
24  lbs.  each. 

Ex.  8. — On  the  3d  of  April,  eight  lambs  (No.  3)  were 
weighed  and  placed  upon  young  clover,  and  supplied  with 
half  a  pound  of  mixed  grain,  as  before.  They  ate  also  12 
lbs.  of  turnips  per  day ;  and,  on  the  1st  day  of  May,  had 
gained  llM  lbs.  each — having  had  a  shed  during  the  day, 
and  being  shut  up  at  night. 

Ex.  9.— On  the  29th  of  May,  the  eight  lambs  (No.  8) 
were  again  weighed,  having  been  allowed,  as  before,  half  a 
pound  of  mixed  grain  upon  the  clover,  but  no  turnips, 


MANAGING    A    FLOCK.  443 

* 

with  shed  to  run  under  at  will.  They  gained  16  lbs.  each 
during  the  month. 

To  prove  the  effect  of  less  heating  food  in  hot  weather, 
he  placed  the  two  lots  of  shearlings  (Xos.  G  and  7)  upon 
moderate  growth  of  clover,  July  1,  1843. 

Ex.  10. — The  eight  shearlings  (No.  6),  being  weighed, 
were  allowed  one  pint  of  peas  per  day,  and  again  weighed 
at  the  end  of  21  days  ;  had  gained  9M  lbs.  each. 

Ex,  11. — The  eight  shearlings  (No.  7)  being  also  weighed, 
were  given  one  pint  of  old  beans,  and,  at  the  end  of  21 
days,  had  gained  6  lbs.  each  ;  the  beans  proving  to  be  a 
too  heating  food,  and  the  sheep  eating  them  being  found 
to  be  getting  humors,  even  in  this  short  time,  while  those 
fed  upon  peas  were  looking  very  healthy.  This  is  a  very 
doubtful  criticism  upon  the  heating  qualities  of  beans  and 
peas,  since,  as  the  percentage  of  carbo-hydrates  and  oil  is 
about  the  same  in  both,  the  heating  qualities  must  be  the 
same. 

Desiring  to  test  the  qualities  of  the  various  vegetables  in 
the  fall,  he  divided  30  lambs  into  equal  lots  of  10  each,  on 
the  2d  of  October,  1843,  and  placed  them  upon  overeaten 
stubble  fields  (which  the  English  call  "seeds").  To  each 
were  fed  different  vegetables  by  an  experienced  shepherd. 

Ex.  12. — Ten  lambs,  fed  upon  cut,  white  turnips,  were 
weighed  again  November  13th  (six  weeks),  and  had  gained 
an  average  of  11  lbs.  each. 

Ex.  13. — Ten  lambs,  fed  on  cut  swedes,  gained,  during 
the  six  weeks,  11  lbs.  each. 

Ex.  14. — Ten  lambs,  fed  on  cut  cabbage,  gained,  during 
the  time,  16K  lbs.  each;  showing  that,  at  this  season, 
cabbage  is  superior  to  turnips  ;  but  as  cold  weather  came 
on,  he  found  the  value  of  the  white  turnip  and  the  cab- 
bage grew  less,  and  the  swedes  improved.  This  is  owing, 
no  doubt,  to  the  larger  percentage  of  water  in  cabbage  and 
white  tuniips,  which  is  unfavorable  in  cold  weather. 


444  PEEDIKG   ANIMALS. 

To  test  grass  land,  in  comparison  with  cole-seed  (a  species 
of  rape  or  cabbage)  and  cabbage,  in  the  autumn  of  1844  he 
put  ten  lambs  upon  each,  on  the  14th  of  October. 

Ex.  15. — Ten  lambs  penned  upon  green  cole-seed  (rape), 
with  cut  clover  chaff,  gained,  in  one  month,  \2}i  lbs.  each. 

Ex.  16. — Ten  lambs,  penned  on  drum-head  cabbage,  with 
cut  clover  chaff,  gained  103^  lbs.  each  in  one  month. 

Ex.  17. — Ten  lambs,  upon  grass,  and  fed  upon  cut  swedes 
and  cabbage,  in  equal  quantities,  with  clover  chaff,  gained 
9M  pounds  each. 

Ex.  18. — Ten  lambs  upon  grass,  and  fed  upon  cut  white 
turnips  and  cabbage,  in  equal  parts,  with  clover  chaff, 
gained  11  lbs.  each. 

To  test  carrots,  as  against  swedes,  he  fed  No.  16  all  the 
swedes  they  would  eat,  and  No.  17  all  the  carrots  they 
would  eat. 

Ex.  19. — Ten  lambs,  fed  upon  cut  swedes  and  clover 
chaff,  were  found  to  have  gained,  in  one  month,  10  lbs. 
each,  and  had  eaten  22  lbs.  of  turnips  per  day. 

Ex.  20. — Ten  lambs,  fed  upon  cut  carrots  and  clover 
chaff',  gained,  in  the  month,  934  lbs.  each,  and  had  eaten 
223^  lbs.  of  carrots  per  day. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  ten  lambs  upon  green  rape 
gained  more  than  those  upon  swedes  and  cabbages.  This 
series  of  experiments  very  well  represents  the  feeding  of 
lambs  with  roots,  grain,  grass,  etc.;  but  it  has  not  gone 
much  into  the  use  of  oil-cake,  and  has  not  given  the 
results  in  feeding  older  sheep. 

Feeding  Young  Lambs. 

We  will  now  give  a  series  of  somewhat  different  experi- 
ments, representing  the  lambs  at  an  earlier  age  with  their 
dams.  This  is  from  Mr.  T.  E.  Pawlett's  essay,  which  was 
highly  commended  by  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of 
England.      His  views   are   based   upon   a  long-continued 


MANAGIXG    A    FLOCK.  445 

habit  of  weighing  his  sheep  and  lambs  every  month,  alive, 
so  that  his  statements  are  based  upon  actual  figures,  like 
those  just  given. 

He  gives,  preliminarily,  the  average  gain  he  has  had  in 
lambs  during  the  year  commencing  soon  after  birth.  In 
small  lots  he  has  found  the  gain  as  follows : 

Young  lambs  in  month  of 

April 9  lbs. 

May 16  " 

June 18  " 

July 15  " 

August 13  " 

September 13  " 

October 13  " 

November 8  " 

December 6  " 

January 5  " 

February 7  " 

March 10  " 

In  13  months,  gain  in  live  weight 130  " 

Mr.  P.  fed,  altogether,  Leicesters,  and  he  says  the  above 
weights  were  often  very  much  exceeded. 

American  feeders  may  not  have  a  very  clear  idea  of  the 
weight  of  swede  turnips  that  lambs  and  other  sheep  will 
eat  per  day.  Mr.  P.  says  an  ewe  lamb-hog  (one  unshorn) 
will  eat  of  cut  swedes,  in  the  month  of  February  : 

Per  day 18  lbs. 

A  wether  lamb-hog SO  " 

A  ram  lamb-hog 33  " 

A  shearling  wt'ther 33  " 

A  feeding  or  breeding  ewe 34  " 

A  sucking  ewe 38  " 

A  ram  above  two  years  old 30  " 

if  no  other  food  but  cut  swedes  is  given  them  ;  but  warm 
weather  will  reduce  the  amount  about  one-fourth.  If  grain 
or  oil-cake,  or  any  other  dry  food  is  given,  they  will  con- 
sume less  turnips  in  proportion  to  the  amount  given. 

Experiment  1. — In  March,  1845,  he  selected  12  ewes  and 
lambs  from  the  flock,  and  divided  into  lots  of  equal  quality 
and  weight.  Six  were  fed  entirely  on  clover-hay  chaff,  of 
which  each  ate  243^2  lbs.  per  week,  at  a  cost  of  21  cts.;  and 


446  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

the  other  six  were  fed  each  163K  lbs.  of  swedes,  costing  17 
cts.,and  2^^  pecks  of  beans,  worth  14  cts.,  amounting  to  31 
cts.  per  week  each.  At  the  end  of  a  month  the  lambs  of 
the  ewes  fed  on  clover  chaff  alone  looked  the  most  thriving. 

Ex.  2. — Twelve  ewes  and  lambs  Avere  again  selected  and 
divided,  and  fed  for  two  weeks,  the  lambs  being  weighed. 
Six  were  fed  on  9  lbs.  of  bran  daily  and  15  lbs.  of  clover 
chaff,  costing  for  each  sheep  26  cts.  per  week;  and  the 
other  six  were  fed  upon  clover  chaff  alone,  as  before,  cost- 
ing 21  cts. — the  lambs  of  the  former  gained,  in  14  days,  G 
lbs.  and  those  of  the  latter  4M  lbs.  This  difference  of  \}i 
lbs.  live  weight  Mr.  P.  regards  as  costing  all  it  comes  to  in 
the  5  cts.  extra  for  bran. 

To  test  the  comparative  value  of  clover  and  trefoil,  as 
against  vetches  or  tares,  he  selected  14  lambs  with  their 
dams,  weighed  the  lambs  and  divided  them  equally  by 
weight  and  number. 

Ex.  3. — Seven  of  these  dams  and  lambs  were  placed  upon 
clover  and  trefoil,  and  the  other  seven  upon  vetches.  The 
seven  on  clover  and  trefoil  gained  20  lbs.  each.  Those  on 
vetches,  16K  lbs.  each. 

Ex.  4. — He  selected  ewes  and  lambs,  weighed  and  divided 
them  on  the  middle  of  May,  folded  one-half  in  the  clover 
field,  and  fed  with  cut  mangold-wurzel  and  a  little  hay 
chaff;  their  lambs  ran  through  the  hurdles  on  a  good 
pasture  of  red  clover.  The  otlier  lot  were  left  at  large  on 
white  clover  and  trefoil,  their  lambs  also  ran  on  a  good 
piece  of  red  clover,  and  both  lots  of  lambs  had  a  small 
quantity  of  peas.  At  the  end  of  28  days  the  lambs  of  the 
ewes  fed  on  mangolds  had  gained  21  lbs.,  the  other  lot, 
18  lbs. 

Here  is  a  most  remarkable  gain  shown  of  21  lbs.  in  28 
days,  or  over  5  lbs.  per  lamb  per  week. 

Ex.  5. — June  10th,  10  lambs  were  weaned  and  weighed 
alive,  put  on  red  clover,  with  some  vetches  and  beans.     On 


MAXAGIXG   A    FLOCK.  447 

the  same  day  lO  lambs  were  weighed,  remaining  with  their 
dams  on  white  clover  and  trefoil,  but  allowed  to  run 
through  the  hurdles  ui:)on  good  red  clover. 

At  the  end  of  33  days  the  unweaned  Limbs  had  gained 
17  lbs.,  and  the  weaned,  16K  lbs.  each.  Another  experi- 
ment with  12  lambs  weaned  and  12  unweaned,  showed  the 
former  to  have  gained  in  a  month  21  lbs  ,  and  the  latter 
2094  lbs.,  showing  the  gain  about  equal  ;  but  Mr.  P. 
remarks  that  those  weaned  early  wintered  best. 

Ex.  7. — Two  lots  of  lambs  were  weighed  November  19th. 
To  the  one  was  given  cut  swedes  with  clover-hay  chaff  and 
malt  ?i")routs  mixed  ;  and  the  other  lot,  cut  swedes  only. 
In  two  months  the  former  gainod  14^2  lbs.,  and  the  latter 
8  lbs.  each,  making  6K  lbs.  in  favor  of  dry  food. 

Fx.  8. — Another  experiment  of  a  similar  character  was 
tried  with  eiglit  lambs  each,  February  18th.  The  one  was 
fed  with  cut  swedes  and  2  lbs.  of  clover  chaff  and  2  lbs.  of 
bran,  the  others  on  swedes  alone.  At  the  end  of  one 
month  the  former  had  gained  7M  lbs.  and  the  latter  3M 
lbs.  each. 

Here  the  gain  is  nearly  double  with  the  dry  food,  and 
this  is  no  doubt  owing  to  the  temperature. 

Ex.  9. — Eight  lambs  were  fed  upon  cabbages  and  white 
turnips  in  October,  with  a  half-pint  of  linseed  to  each,  and 
a  like  number  were  fed  upon  cabbages,  white  turnips  and 
clover  chaff,  as  much  as  they  would  eat.  The  former 
gained,  in  one  montli,  IG  lbs.,  and  the  latter  16  lbs. 

Here  the  clover  chaff  balances  the  half-pint  of  linseed. 
One  of  its  most  important  offices  is  to  absorb  the  extra 
amount  of  water  in  the  cabbage  and  turnips.  Mr.  P. 
appears  to  be  opposed  to  feeding  sheep  in  yards  ;  but  he 
thought  he  would  try  it  again,  and  on  the  4th  of  December 
he  put  some  of  his  best  lambs  into  a  warm,  well-sheltered 
yard,  witli  a  high  shed  to  feed  under,  well  littered  with 
fresh  straw,  and  fed  them,  as  usual,  on  swedes  and  grain. 


44S  FEEDING   AKIMALS. 

These  were  weighed  as  against  a  like  number  fed  eiglit 
weeks  in  a  turnip  field  : 

Those  in  field  gained  each 13  lbs. 

Those  in  yard  only  gained  each 3  " 

Apparent  balance  against  yard  feeding 10  " 

He  remarks:  ^^ These  lambs  did  not  appear  to  like  the 
confinement,  and  took  every  opportunity  of  getting  out  if 
they  could."  The  reader  will  compare  this  with  experi- 
ments three,  five,  and  seven  of  the  first  series,  where  the 
shed  appeared  to  increase  the  gain  decidedly.  The  expla- 
nation is  probably  to  be  found  in  the  strict  confinement, 
which  so  changed  the  habits  of  the  lambs  as  to  unfavorably 
affect  their  health. 

The  American  feeder,  in  looking  over  these  experiments, 
will  note  the  favorable  effect  of  a  little  grain  with  the 
turnip  ration.  The  turnip  is  a  very  watery  plant;  and 
although  a  moderate  amount  of  succulence  is  very  con- 
ducive to  health  and  animal  growth,  yet  to  compel  lambs 
to  take  their  entire  food  diluted  with  87  to  90  per  cent, 
water  is  not  appropriate,  excejot  in  the  warm  season  ;  and 
even  then  dry  food  as  a  part  of  the  ration  is  an  improve- 
ment. In  experiment  No.  5,  on  IM  lbs.  of  mixed  gram 
with  lS/4  lbs.  turnips,  the  lambs  gained  as  much  in  10 
weeks  as  those  in  experiment  3  did  in  15  weeks  on  H  lb.  of 
oil-cake  and  peas  with  20}i  lbs.  of  turnips;  and  in  these 
two  experiments  the  shelter  was  the  same  and  only  propor- 
tions of  the  food  changed. 

It  has  always  been  our  strong  belief  that  English  feeders 
are  in  error  in  feeding  more  than  10  lbs.  of  turnips  to  a 
lamb,  and  the  balance  of  the  ration  should  be  made  up  of 
early  cut  and  cured  clover-hay,  tares,  rape,  or  fine  grasses, 
and  grain,  or  oil-cake,  or  a  mixture.  ExiDcriments  8  and 
0  prove  that  12  lbs  of  turnips  on  very  young  and  succulent 
clover  (No.  8),  with  H  lb.  of  grain,  produced  less  gain  per 
month  (llM  lbs.)  than  when  omitted  (No.  9,  where  the 


GERMAN    EXPERIMEXTS.  449 

clover  and  ^^ruin  produced  16  lbs.  gain).  The  actual  nutri- 
ment in  20  to  23  pounds  of  turnips  is  only  equal  to  3  lbs. 
of  Indian  corn.  And  when  we  take  into  consideration  the 
amount  of  extra  water  that  must  be  exhaled  and  evapo- 
rated from  the  body  in  the  excessive  use  of  turnips  as  a 
food  in  moderately  cold  weather,  it  is  highly  probable  that 
23  lbs.,  of  turnips  scarcely  represents  in  heat  and  fat- 
forming  power,  3  lbs.  of  corn.  This  would  make  a  bushel 
of  corn  balance  429  pounds  of  turnips,  or  an  acre  of  corn, 
at  40  bushels  per  acre,  would  equal  8^2  tons  of  2,000  pounds 
of  turnips;  and,  counting  the  corn  at  25  cents  per  bushel, 
as  it  averages  over  large  districts  of  the  West,  it  would  give 
but  $1.18  per  ton  for  the  turnips,  and  $2.36  when  corn  is 
50  cts.  per  bushel.  This  last  price  would  equal  6  cents  per 
bushel— a  price  for  which  some  American  farmers  say 
turnips  or  beets  can  be  raised.  But  this  comparison  will 
show  that  turnips  cannot  compete  with  Indian  corn  when 
the  latter  can  be  purchased  at  25  cts.  per  bushel.  Yet  the 
real  value  of  turnips,  as  a  food  preservative  of  animal 
health  and  growth,  is  higher  than  that  given  here.  Ten 
pounds  of  turnips  with  IK  lbs.  of  corn  will  fatten  a  young 
sheep  or  lamb  faster  than  3  lbs.  of  corn  alone.  The 
English  ration  of  turnips  or  other  roots  for  both  sheep  and 
cattle  is  quite  excessive,  and  would  be  more  profitable  if 
divided  and  the  same  value  in  grain  fed  for  the  other  half. 
The  succulent  root  crop,  fed  in  moderate  quantity,  is  the 
basis  of  successful  winter-feeding  of  sheep  in  England,  and 
may  yet  be  widely  adopted  in  this  countrj-,  unless  the  silo 
shall  preserve  better  green  food  at  a  less  price,  where  the 
price  of  corn  ranges  from  40  to  75  cts.  per  bushel. 

German  Experiments  in  Sheep-Feeding. 

We  will  now  give  some  German  experiments — the  first 
conducted  by  Dr.  Wolff  in  feeding  two  common  lambs  for 
9  months,  from  5  to  14  months  old.    These  lambs  were  fed 


450 


FEEDING    ANIMALS. 


upon  hay,  oats,  and  oil-cake.  The  hay  during  the  first  two 
periods  was  early-cut  and  nicely-cured  meadow  hay,  and 
during  the  other  periods  was  aftermath.  The  following 
table  gives  the  amount  of  food,  gain,  etc. : 


Digested. 

__ 

« 

Period. 

03 

I 

S 

4 

o 

c 

S 

t 
c 

1 

s. 

> 

5 
o 

a 

— 

i2 

0 

'rt 

< 

< 

&H 

< 

d 

'A 

C 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

1 

5-f) 

59  7 

1.99 

0.21 

0.08 

0.97 

5.6 

0.26 

2 

6-8 

70  7 

2  02 

0  24 

0  08 

1  02 

5  1 

0  24 

3 

8-9 

78.9 

1.91 

0:21 

0.10 

0.92 

5.6 

0.07 

4 

9-12 

84  8 

1  82 

0  19 

0  06 

0  91 

5  6 

(I  12 

5 

12-14 

95.8 

1.76 

0.19 

0.08 

0.89 

5.r 

0.1'.l 

It  appears  from  the  above  table  that  the  daily  gain  in  the 
first  two  periods  was  very  uniform,  in  the  tJiird  period  fell 
off  72  per  cent,  in  the  fourth  period  was  50  per  cent,  of  the 
second,  and  in  the  fifth  period  increased  50  per  cent,  over 
the  fourth.  This  experiment,  although  it  illustrates  the 
law  of  growth — that  the  younger  the  animal  the  greater 
the  gain  from  a  given  amount  of  food — yet  there  are  such 
irregularities  visible  as  to  deprive  it  of  much  authoritative 
value.     The  number  of  animals  is  quite  too  small. 

The  following  ex23eriments  by  Stohmann  were  upon 
lambs  seven  to  eight  months  old,  fed  upon  straw,  potatoes, 
clover-hay,  and  oil-cake.  These  were  combined  into  rations 
for  the  four  different  lots  of  lambs,  each  slightly  varying 
from  the  others.  These  lambs  were  fed  four  months  before 
shearing  and  one  month  after  shearing.  The  nitrogen- 
ous and  non-nitrogenous  elements  of  the  ration  per  day 
per  head,  gain  per  day,  etc.,  are  shown  in  the  following 
table; 


GERMAN"   EXPERIMENTS. 
Before  Shearing, 


451 


Di<;estible  albuminoids,  lbs 

Digestible  carbo-hydrutes  and  fat,  lbs 

Nutritive  ratio ". 

Gain  per  day,  lbs 

After  Shearing. 

Digestible  albuminoids,  lbs 

Diicestible  carbo-hydrates  and  fat,  lbs, 

Nutritive  ratio 

Gain  per  day,  lbs 

Average  live  weight,  lbs 

Dressed  in  per  cent,  of  live  weight. . . 


Lot  1. 


0.38 
1.54 
1.41 
0.25 


0.48 

2.04 

1:4  3 

0.28 

95.00 

58.10 


Lot  2. 


0.28 
1.56 
1.56 
0  21 


0.35 

2.02 

1:5  8 

0.25 

92.00 

57.40 


Lot  3. 


0.28 
1.36 
1.49 
0.17 


0.33 

1.76 

1:5.3 

0.23 

86.00 

56.20 


Lot  4. 


0.38 
1.41 
1.37 
0.21 


0.46 

1.80 

1:3.9 

0  24 

92.00 

53.10 


This  experiment  of  Stohmann's  shows  the  effect  of 
higher  feeding  over  that  of  Wolff's,  but  neither  shows  a 
gain  equal  to  the  English  experiments  given  above;  and 
this  may  be  explained  from  the  fact  that  the  English 
mutton  sheep  are  better  bred  than  the  German,  mature 
earlier,  and  eat  larger  rations.  Take  No.  19  of  Mr.  Smith's 
experiments,  where  the  10  lambs  average  22  lbs.  of  swedes 
per  day.  This  would  be  equal  to  .29  lb.  digestible  albu- 
minoids, 2.40  lbs.  carbo-hydrates,  .022  lb.  fat;  and  they 
averaged  a  gain  of  .33  lb.  per  day,  and  this  is  only  about  an 
average  gain  per  day  of  the  lambs  in  Smith's  and  Pawlett's 
experiments,  and  yet  the  proportions  of  the  rations  do  not 
greatly  differ. 

We  will  add  to  these  experiments  those  of  Weiske,  of 
recent  date,  on  feeding  lambs.  He  carried  two  lambs 
through  nine  periods  of  about  five  weeks  each,  beginning 
at  the  age  of  four  months.  At  the  end  of  the  ninth  period 
the  lambs  were  put  into  the  flock  for  some  nine  months, 
and  then  fed  another  period.  The  ration  consisted  of  hav 
and  peas  at  first,  but  gradually  the  hay  was  increased  and 
the  peas  diminished  until  in  the  last  three  periods  the 
ration  was  composed  wholly  of  hay.  In  each  period 
analyses  were  made  of  the  foddui-,  of  the  excrement — solid 


452 


FEEDING    ANIMALS. 


and  liquid — and  live  weight  taken  for  some  eight  days.  It 
was  said  also  these  lambs  gained  weight  faster  than  lambs 
of  the  same  age  on  good  pasturage.  We  are  indebted  for 
these  tables  to  Prof.  Armsby's  recent  '*  Manual  on  Cattle- 
Feeding": 

Per  Head. 


a 
o 
B 

To 

1 

Digested,  per  day. 

> 

Gain,  PER  DAT. 

Peuiod. 

o 
£ 

< 

i 

i 
i 

i 

1 

<D 

> 

3 

7: 

1 

2 

4-51^ 

75i-9 
9    -lO^i 

12%— 14 

14    —15 

24 

lbs. 
45.0 
56.2 
63.5 
71.7 
77.0 
77.6 
83.6 
89.1 
85.8 
126.5 

lbs. 
0.17 
0.18 
0.18 
0.20 
0.18 
0.18 
0.18 
0.17 
C.16 
0.15 

lbs. 
0.03 
0.04 
0.04 
0.04 
0  04 
0.04 
0.05 
0.05 
0.04 
0.06 

lbs. 
0.74 
0.92 
0.90 
0.98 
0.95 
0.94 
0.96 
0.99 
0.98 
1.18 

4.8 
5.7 
5.6 
5.4 
5.8 
5.8 
6.0 
6.6 
6.8 
8.9 

lbs. 
0.28 
0.27 
0.23 
0.20 
0.13 
0.09 
0.13 
0.16 

lbs. 
0  17 
0.17 

3 

O.lfi 

4 

0.18 

5 

6 

0.15 
0.13 

7          .   .. 

0.19 

8 

0.16 

9 

10 

0  14 

This  experiment  shows  very  clearly  the  effect  of  age  and 
weight  upon  the  growth  of  the  lamb — each  period  a  steady 
decrease  in  gain  per  day,  although  the  food  is  slightly 
increased,  and  especially  in  proportion  to  the  gain.  Had 
there  been  a  larger  number  of  lambs — say  ten — so  as  to 
have  eliminated  the  peculiarities  of  the  individual,  thi.s 
series  of  experiments  would  have  possessed  great  value; 
and  this  is  the  fault  of  most  of  the  feeding  experiments  at 
ihe  German  stations— that  they  have  been  performed  upon 
individuals  and  upon  too  small  a  number  of  animals.  But 
if  i!iis  table  is  calculated  per  100  lbs.  live  weight,  instead 
of  per  head,  the  result  more  clearly  appears. 


GERMAN   EXPERIMENTS. 
Per  100  Lbs.  Live  Weight, 


453 


Period. 


1 

3 
4 
5 
6 

8 
9 
10 


Digested, 

p. 

a 

^ 

PER  DAY. 

o 

1 

.a 

i 

6 

"53 
is 

o 

O 

ac 
< 

1 

C5 

o 
a 

a 

< 

^ 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

0.38 

0.07 

1.67 

0.73 

0  29 

0.09 

0.33 

0.07 

1.66 

0.54 

0  26 

0  07 

0.28 

0.06 

1.41 

0.41 

0.23 

0.05 

0.28 

0.06 

1.36 

0.31 

0.22 

0.06 

0.24 

0.05 

1.23 

0.17 

0.20 

0.04 

0  23 

0.06 

1.22 

0.13 

0.19 

0.04 

0  22 

0  05 

1.15 

0.17 

0.17 

0.05 

0.20 

0.05 

1.11 

0.19 

0.16 

0.04 

0.19 

0.06 

1.09 

0.12 

0.05 

0.93 

0.10 

0.02 

23.7 
21.2 
17.9 
24  4 
16  7 
17.4 
22.7 
20.0 

16.i 


This  table  shows  most  clearly  the  extra  cost  of  putting 
on  live  weight  as  the  animal  grows  older  and  heavier.  If 
we  take  an  average  of  the  first  three  periods,  we  find  that 
0)2  lbs.  of  digestible  food  produced  one  pound  gain  in  live 
weight;  but  if  we  take  an  average  of  the  6th,  7th  and  Kh 
periods,  it  required  8tV  lbs.  of  digestible  food  to  make  one 
l)ound  gain  in  live  weight — about  two  and  a  half  times  as 
much  food  to  produce  the  same  result.  This  shows  in 
striking  light  the  advantage  of  early  maturity.  If  our 
readers  will  carefully  study  these  experiments  and  tables, 
they  will  never  more  doubt  the  economy  of  full-feeding 
from  birth  to  commercial  maturity. 

Cutting  and  Cooking  Fodder  for  Sheep. 

The  preparation  of  the  winter  food  for  sheep  is  an  import- 
ant matter  to  be  considered.  The  sheep's  grinding  or  masti- 
cating apparatus  has  often  been  so  strongly  commended  as 
to  lead  most  feeders  to  suppose  that  the  artificial  prepara- 
tion of  their  food  is  labor  lost.     This,  however,  is  far  from 


454  FEEDIN-G   ANIMALS. 

being  borne  out  by  the  facts.  The  author,  on  theory,  has 
regarded  tlie  cutting  of  hay  and  other  coarse  fodder  for 
sheep  as  good  economy;  and  to  test  this  point  by  an 

EXPERIMEXT, 

we  fed  25  medium-sized  grade  Merino  sheep  50  lbs.  of  long, 
early-cut  timothy-hay  per  day  for  one  week,  and,  on  gather- 
ing up  the  fragments  each  day,  found  that  the  average  was 
12  lbs.  per  day  left  uneaten.  We  found,  also,  that  this  hay 
was  not  left  because  of  over-feeding,  for  when  fed  75  lbs. 
per  day  they  ate  the  same  proportion  of  it. 

They  were  then  given  50  lbs.  of  the  same  hay  per  day  cut 
%  inch  long,  for  one  week,  and,  on  carefully  gathering  up 
what  was  left,  found  less  than  2  lbs.  average  per  day 
uneaten.  On  increasing  this  cut  hay  to  GO  lbs.  per  day, 
this  was  found  to  be  all  they  would  eat.  This  was  con- 
tinued till  we  came  to  the  conclusion  that  60  lbs.  of  cut 
hay  equaled,  for  sheep,  75  lbs.  of  tlie  same  hay  uncut.  We 
also  found,  in  the  case  of  good  fodder  corn,  that  twice  as 
much  of  it  was  eaten  by  sheep,  when  cut  h  inch  in  length, 
as  when  uncut.  In  short,  our  experiments  proved  that 
sheep  pay  as  well  for  fine  chaffing  of  coarse  fodder  as  any 
class  of  farm  stock.  The  experiment  was  intended  simply 
to  test  the  eftect  of  cutting  the  hay  and  fodder  corn  when 
feeding  store  sheep. 

In  fattening  sheep  we  have  experimented  on  the  effect  of 
cooking  hay  and  grain  together.  For  this  purpose  we 
mixed  100  lbs.  corn-meal,  100  lbs.  of  wheat  middlings  and 
50  lbs.  of  linseed  oil-meal  (old  style).  One  hundred  pounds 
of  this  mixture  was  mixed  with  200  lbs.  of  cut  hay,  the  hay 
being  first  moistened;  and  then  GOO  lbs.  of  this  mixture 
were  placed  in  a  steam-box  and  cooked  with  live  steam  for 
one  hour  and  a  half.  The  sheep,  of  about  100  lbs.  weight, 
consumed  3  lbs.  i3er  head  per  day  in  two  feeds,  morning 


COOKED  FOOD  FOR  SHEEP.  455 

and  evening,  with  }i  lb.  of  dry  hay  at  noon.  Upon  this 
ration  the  gain  was  3  lbs.  per  head  per  week.  The  same 
ration  uncooked  produced  a  gain  of  2  to  2M  lbs.  per  head 
per  week.  Upon  this  cooked  ration  the  sheep  seeme'^  as 
contented  as  on  grass. 

A  cooked  ration  is  more  laxative  than  a  dry  one,  and  the 
small  proportion  of  oil-meal  also  assisted  in  keeping  the 
digestive  organs  in  a  healthy  condition.  The  small  lock  of 
dry  hay  at  noon  was  relished  and  corrected  any  tendency 
to  relaxation.  Having  fed  sheep  upon  steamed  food  for 
several  winters,  and  always  with  satisfaction,  we  came  to 
regard  this  way  of  feeding  as  most  profitable  with  a  large 
stock  and  the  proper  facilities. 

Another  Experiment. 

Under  this  head  we  will  give  a  condensed  statement  of 
the  experiments  of  the  late  Arvine  C.  Wales,  of  Massillon, 
Ohio,  in  feeding  sheep  on  a  large  scale  upon  cooked  food. 
In  1874  he  divided  a  lot  of  300  sheep  into  two  flocks  of 
150  each.  The  one  lot  was  placed  under  a  shed  and  fed 
liberally  on  clover  hay  and  sheaf  oats ;  the  other  lot  was 
placed  in  another  shed  and  fed  on  cut  fodder  corn  and 
wheat  bran.  Seventy-five  pounds  of  bran  were  mixed  with 
one  day's  feed  of  fodder  corn  and  all  wet  down  with  boiling 
water.  Both  lots  of  sheep  were  weighed  before  the  feeding 
began  and  frequently  during  the  experiment,  of  eight 
weeks.  He  does  not  give  the  figures  of  the  weighings,  but 
says:  "  They  were  interesting  to  me  and  so  satisfactory  as 
to  seem  to  warrant  the  purchase  of  an  engine  and  boiler, 
and  the  putting  up  of  tanks  and  conveniences  on  a  scale 
adequate  to  the  wants  of  the  flock.  Since  then  I  have  fed 
cooked  food  almost  exclusively.  Last  winter,  owing  to  the 
failure  of  the  hay  crop,  I  kept  over  my  entire  stock,  con- 
sisting of  20  horses,  20  head  of  cattle,  and  between  1,600 
and  1,700  sheep,  without  a  pound  of  hay,  and  they  came 


456  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

into  spring  in  better  condition  than  they  have  ever  done 
on  dry  feed."  He  then  gives  his  mode  of  raising  fodder 
corn,  which  was  to  sow  two  bushels  of  seed  with  a  drill,  all 
the  tubes  working,  and  cut  it  witli  a  reaper,  setting  it  up 
m  large  shocks.  He  figures  his  corn  at  six  tons  of  cured 
stalks  per  acre,  at  a  cost  of  seed,  labor,  all  told,  including 
shocking,  at  $1.30  per  ton.  He  gives  the  following  state- 
ment of 

Cost  of  Steamixg. 

"  The  stock  now  being  fed  requires  about  three  tons  of 
dry  feed  per  day.  The  cutting  is  done  by  a  Ko.  6 
Cummins  cutter,  and  it  is  so  arranged  that  the  cut  feed  as 
it  falls  from  the  cutting  machine  is  carried  to  and  placed 
111  the  tanks,  wet  up  with  the  necessary  quantity  of  water, 
and  mixed  with  bran  or  meal  by  machinery — so  that  when 
the  cutting  is  done  the  feed  is  ready  for  the  steam.  Three 
men  in  an  hour  and  a  half  can  cut  the  three  tons.  With 
the  present  boiler  capacity  it  takes  one  man  four  hours 
more  to  steam  it.  The  cost  of  fuel  for  cutting,  mixing, 
steaming,  pumping  water,  etc.,  is  about  five  cents  per  ton 
of  dry  feed.  The  cut  feed  is  much  more  easily  and  rapidly 
distributed  to  the  animals  than  long  feed.  It  is  shoveled 
from  the  tanks  down  into  wagons  with  side  boards,  that 
stand  below  the  bottoms  of  the  tanks,  and  carried  to  the 
sheep-folds.  The  racks  are  made  to  accommodate  twenty 
sheep,  and  this  number  is  found  to  need  about  two  bushels 
of  cut  feed.  The  feeder  has  two  two-bushel  baskets. 
While  he  is  carrying  one  to  the  racks  the  boy  fills  the 
other.  In  this  way  a  man  and  a  boy  can  feed  and  care  f«)r 
1,500  sheep.  The  fodder  is  eaten  up  clean,  a  few  joints 
and  soiled  pieces  only  being  left,  but  not  one  per  cent,  is 
wasted. 

"All  the  advantages  claimed  for  feeding  steamed  food  to 
cattle   and    horses — the   economy  of  feed,   the   increased 


SHEEP  FEEDING.  45'}' 

health,  thrift  and  comfort  of  the  animals — are  found  in  an 
equal  degree  in  the  feeding  of  sheep.  The  effect  is  shown 
in  the  wool,  which  is  of  a  length,  clearness,  style,  and 
particularly  strength  of  staple  rarely  found  on  sheep  win- 
tered on  dry  feed.  There  is  no  jar,  or  tender  place  in  the 
wool  indicating  the  point  in  the  growth  of  the  fibre  where 
the  sheep  changed  from  green  to  dry  feed.  All  the  wool 
buyers  observed  this ;  and  the  wool,  it  is  belieyed,  com- 
manded a  higher  price  than  any  other  clip  bought  from 
first  hands  in  this  or  any  of  the  adjoining  counties. 

"  It  is  not  claimed  that  the  steaming  of  feed  adds  to  its 
nutritive  elements.  But  as  the  pulverization  and  stirring 
of  the  soil  promote  the  growth  of  plants  by  making  the 
plant  food  more  accessible  to  the  plants,  so  the  steaming 
of  feed  makes  it  at  once  more  palatable  and  more  readily 
digested  and  assimilated  by  the  animals,  and  performs  the 
same  ofiice  for  their  food  that  cooking  does  for  ours." 

We  have  no  doubt  that  Mr.  Wales'  views  of  the  improve- 
ment of  the  food  by  steaming,  for  sheep,  is  correct.  Our 
experiments,  which  long  ante-dated  his,  gave  us  the  fullest 
confidence  in  this  mode  of  feeding.  English  farmers  find 
great  benefit  from  succulent  roots  for  sheep-feedmg,  and 
cooking  produces  very  much  the  same  effect.  We  think  it 
probable,  however,  that  ensilage  will  take  the  place  m 
sheep-feeding  both  of  roots  and  cooking.  The  green  corn, 
clover  and  grass,  preserved  in  silo,  may  be  expected  to 
accomplish  all  that  is  to  be  desired  ifi  this  respect. 
20 


458  FEEDING  ANIMALS. 


CHAPTER    XII. 


SWINE. 


We  discuss  this  class  of  stock  last,  but  it  is  by  no  means 
least.  The  pig  is  often  treated  with  contempt  on  account 
of  its  supposed  filthy  habits  and  diminutive  size;  but  it 
occupies  a  most  important  position  in  our  agriculture.  It 
furnishes  to  the  people  a  very  large  share  of  their  flesh 
food;  and  in  a  commercial  point  of  view  it  rises  into  grand 
proportions.  We  have  been  wont  to  glory  over  our  export 
of  dairy  products,  especially  of  cheese,  and  now  wo  have 
great  reason  for  encouragement  m  regard  to  our  beef 
export,  which  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  reach 
$50,000,000  in  a  few  years ;  but  a  comparison  of  our 
exports  of  animal  products  for  the  fiscal  year  endiug  June 
30,  1876,  places  the  despised  pig  at  the  head.  The  prod- 
ucts of  the  pig  exported  during  that  year  were — 

Bacon  and  hams,  valued  at $^^9,664, 450 

Pork,  "         5,744,022 

Lard,  "         22,429,485 

LardoO,  "        149.156 

Live  hogs,  "        070,042 

Total  value  of  pig  exports,  1876 S68,057, 161 

Total,  ISSI ' $105,790,779 

If  we  take  the  entire  range  of  cattle  products  exported 

during  1876,  we  find  the  following  items  :' 

Beef,  valued  at $3,180,304 

Preserved  meats,  valued  at 998,052 

Butter,                           "         1,109,490 

Cheese,                           "        12,270,083 

Tallow,                           "        0,734,378 

Hides  and  skins,           "        2,905,921 

Leather,                         "        8,394,580 

Total  cattle  products  exported,  1876 $35,598,814 

Cattle  products,  1881 $08,711,300 


THE   PIG.  459 

By  a  comparison,  we  find  the  exported  products  of  the 
pig  at  the  former  period  to  have  been  about  double  the 
value  of  those  of  cattle,  and  at  the  latter  period  more  than 
50  per  cent,  greater.  The  item  of  bacon  has  greatly 
increased  vrithin  the  last  few  years.  In  1872  it  was  only 
821,000,000,  and  previous  to  that  only  averaged  about 
$6,000,000  per  year,  while  in  1881  it  reached  over 
$61,000,000.  This  great  increase  has  resulted  from  our 
study  of  the  tastes  of  the  English  people.  They  require 
hams  put  up  in  a  particular  way,  and  we  are  only  catering 
to  that  taste,  and  the  increase  is  $30,000,000  in  a  few  years. 
This  export  of  meat  instead  of  corn,  concentrating  that 
bulky  cereal  into  the  condensed  product  of  pork,  when  it 
may  be  exported  for  one-eighth  of  the  cost  of  exporting  the 
raw  food  to  make  it,  and  the  difference  coming  to  gladden 
the  heart  of  the  meat  producer. 

We  thus  find  that  the  pig  grows  in  the  estimation  of  the 
American  farmer  every  year  as,  perhaps,  the  most  economi- 
cal machine  for  the  manufacture  of  our  coarse  grain  crops 
into  meat.  This  animal  is,  therefore,  worthy  of  the  most 
careful  study,  as  it  is  soon  destined  to  represent  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  millions  in  our  cash  exports. 

The  pig  yields  us  more  dollars  in  exports  than  any  other 
single  agricultural  product  except  wheat  and  cotton.  It  is 
therefore  entitled  to  be  treated  with  great  consideration.  An- 
other excellent  point  in  its  favor  is,  that  no  other  animal 
utilizes  a  greater  percentage  of  its  food.  It  costs  less  food  to 
grow  a  pound  of  pork  than  a  pound  of  beef.  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes, 
of  Rothamstead,  in  his  experiments,  a  few  years  ago,  found 
that  the  pig  utilized  20  per  cent,  of  its  food,  while  cattle 
utilized  but  8  per  cent,  of  the  dry  substance  of  their  food. 
It  thus  appears  that  the  stock  farmer  has  every  reason 
to  study  the  nature  and  management  of  the  pig  as  one  of 
his  most  fruitful  sources  of  revenue. 

If  we  examine  the  digestive  apparatus  of  the  pig,  it  will 


4G0  FEEDIXG    AXIMALS. 

be  plain  why  this  animal  produces  a  larger  growth  from 
the  same  amount  of  food  than  the  ox  or  sheep.  Messrs. 
Lawes  and  Gilbert's  researches  throw  some  light  upon  this 
point.  They  found,  by  accurate  experiment,  that  the 
stomach  and  its  contents  amounted,  in  the  pig,  to  only  Ih 
per  cent,  of  the  whole  weight  of  the  animal,  whilst  in  sheep 
it  was  7/i  per  cent.,  and  in  oxen  1114  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
weight.  But  the  proportion  of  the  weight  of  the  intestines 
and  their  contents  is  greatest  in  the  pig,  it  being  in  that 
animal  6K  per  cent.,  while  in  the  sheep  it  is  3K,  and 
in  oxen  only  2/i  per  cent.  See  on  this  point  page  G3 
a7ite. 

The  food  of  the  ruminant  consists  of  a  large  proportion 
of  indigestible  woody  fibre,  whilst  the  food  of  the  pig  con- 
sists more  largely  of  starch,  and  the  digestion  of  its  food 
takes  place  largely  in  the  intestinal  canal.  This  explains  why 
the  pig  is  so  great  a  digester  of  food,  and  why  it  consumes 
more  food  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  its  body  than 
the  ox.  It  also  furnishes  the  basis  for  an  explanation  of  the 
fact  that  the  pig  gains  more  in  weight  from  a  given  amount 
of  food  than  the  ox.  As  we  have  seen,  all  animals  require  a 
certain  amount  of  food  to  keep  them  alive,  or  in  their  present 
condition,  called  the  food  of  support,  and  it  is  the  food  eaten 
and  assimilated  beyond  this  food  of  support  that  gives  the 
increase,  and  this  is  called  the  food  of  production.  This  extra 
food  all  goes  to  increase  the  weight.  Now  if  the  pig  digests 
and  assimilates  more  in  proportion  to  its  weight  than  the 
ox  or  sheep,  it  must  use  a  larger  precentage  of  what  it  eats 
as  the  food  of  production,  and,  of  course,  a  larger  gain  re- 
sults from  a  given  quantity  of  food.  Large  capacity  for 
digestion  is,  therefore,  a  prime  quality  in  animals  reared  for 
the  production  of  meat,  and  in  this  respect  the  pig  stands 
unrivaled  among  all  our  domestic  animals.  We  shall  there- 
fore be  justified  in  studying  carefully  all  its  wants  with  a 
view  of  supplying  them. 


THE    PIG.  461 

Care  of  Breeding  Sows. 

Having  selected  such  young  sow  pigs  as  appear  likely  to 
make  the  best  breeders  (and  this  selection  will  be  made  by 
experienced  breeders  before  the  pig  is  two  months  old),  such 
system  of  feeding  should  be  adopted  as  will  develop  every 
part  of  the  body  evenly,  and  particularly  the  muscular  and 
osseous  systems.     The  young  breeding  sow  should  be  fully 
fed,  and  made  to  develop  as  rapidly  as  good  health  will 
permit,  for  the  feeding  habit  and  constitution  of  the  mother 
will  be  inherited  by  the  offspring.     The  mother  is  supposed 
especially  to  impart  to  the  young  her  own  digestive  system, 
and  it  is  natural  therefore  to  conclude  that  the  thrifty, 
rapidly-growing  young  sow  will  impart  these  characteristics 
to  her  offspring.     Early  maturity,  together  with  a  vigorous 
constitution  is  now  the  desired  end  sought  by  all  swine- 
breeders  and  feeders.     But  the  young  breeding  sow  needs  to 
have  length  and  depth  of  body,  well-rounded  ribs,  and  ten 
to  twelve  teats,  well  spread  apart.     In  order  to  promote  this 
conformation  of  body,  the  food  of  the  young  sow  should  be 
rich  in  muscle  and  bone-forming  elements,  not  such  as  is 
best  calculated  to  fatten.     A  short  compact  body  in  a  sow 
will  indicate  a  tendency  to  fatten,  and  not  to  bring  large 
litters  and  furnish  them  with  abundant  milk.     Food  rich 
in  oil,  sugar  and  starch  must  be  given  very  sparingly.     In 
all  Indian  corn  growing  regions,  the  custom  is  to  feed  too 
much  corn  to  young  pigs,  and  especially  to  young  breeding 
sows.     Young  clover  and  grass  are  always  proper  food  for 
pigs  ;   and  in  dairy  districts,  nothing  is  better  than  skim- 
milk.     Containing    so  large   a   proportion    of  casein,    or 
cheese,  and  phosphate  of  lime,  it  is  admirably  adapted  to 
develop  the  muscular  and  osseous  systems.    But  in  the  West, 
the  great  corn  and  pig-growing  region,  so  little  attention  is 
given  to  the  proper  food  of  breeding  sows,  that  they  are 
often  fed  indiscriminately  with  the  fattening  herd,  almost 
wholly  upon  corn.     We  have  always  regarded  that  frightful 


462  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

scourge,  hog  cholera,  to  be  largely  the  result  of  feeding  so 
indiscriminately  with  corn.  As  a  proof  of  this,  this  disease 
is  hardly  known  in  Canada,  where  joeas,  oats  and  barley  are 
fed  in  place  of  corn  to  young  and  growing  pigs.  There  is 
also  very  little  cholera  in  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States, 
except  among  hogs  brought  from  the  West. 

The  milk  supplied  by  the  brood  sow  to  her  young  pigs  is 
said  to  be  even  richer  in  casein,  or  nitrogenous  food,  than 
cow's  milk  ;  and  as  we  have  said  in  former  chapters,  Nature 
furnishes  in  her  food  for  the  young  the  best  combination  of 
elements,  and  if  we  imitate  the  milk  of  the  dam,we  shall  make 
no  mistake  in  the  food  ration.  Then,  besides  grass,  we  should 
give  the  young  breeding  sow  food  of  similar  composition  to 
oats,  peas,  beans,  oil-meal,  bran  or  wheat  middlings — all 
having  a  large  proportion  of  albuminoids,  and  being  also 
rich  in  phosphate  of  lime. 

It  is  not  well  to  couple  the  young  sow  before  she  is  nine 
months  old,  as  she  should  not  farrow  her  first  litter  under 
thirteen  months  old.  Sows  are  sometimes  coupled  at  six  or 
seven  months,  but  this  practice  is  likely  to  produce  a  puny 
ofispring,  and  if  it  is  persisted  in  for  several  generations,  like 
planting  small  potatoes,  the  progeny  will  grow  smaller  and 
punier  with  each  succeeding  generation. 

When  the  young  sow  is  about  to  farrow,  she  should  be 
put  into  a  small  clean  pen,  with  a  narrow  board  placed 
around  the  outside  of  the  bed,  about  four  inches  from  the 
wall  and  four  inches  above  the  floor,  so  as  to  prevent  her 
from  overlying  her  young,  which  will  escape  under  these 
boards.  From  one  to  two  bushels  of  cut  straw  only  should 
be  given  her  for  bedding. 

It  is  expected  that  these  young  sows  have  been  petted  and 
accustomed  to  being  handled  by  the  attendant.  This  kind- 
ness and  gentleness  may  save  a  very  valuable  litter  of  pigs. 
If  the  sow  is  wild,  it  is  quite  useless  to  attempt  to  assist  her, 
as  it  will  only  increase  her  excitement,  and  still  more  en- 
danger the  safety  of  the  young  pigs. 


THE    PIG.  463 

If  the  sow  should  produce  less  than  eight  pigs  at  the  first 
litter,  it  may  be  considered  unprofitable  to  keep  her  as  a 
breeder ;  unless  her  blood  is  very  valuable,  she  had  better 
be  fattened  for  pork. 

Weight  of  Pigs  at  Birth. 

The  sow  having  farrowed  her  litter  in  safety,  let  us  ex- 
amine the  young  things,  and  get  an  idea  of  their  dimensions. 
What  does  the  young  pig  ordinarily  weigh  at  birth?  We 
have  never  personally  weighed  them  at  birth,  and  know  of 
only  one  record  of  such  weighing.  Boussingault  says  he 
was  "  curious  to  ascertain  the  weight  of  pigs  at  the  moment 
of  birth,  so  as  to  determine  their  rate  of  increase  during 
the  period  of  suckling."  He  weighed  a  litter  of  five  pigs 
on  the  5th  September.  They  weighed  from  2.20  lbs.  to 
3.30  lbs.,  the  average  being  2.75  lbs.  each.  This  seems  a 
very  small  beginning  for  an  animal  that  has  sometimes 
reached  over  1,000  lbs.  weight.  Thirty-six  days  afterwards, 
October  11th,  the  litter  had  grown  to  86.9  lbs. — an  average 
of  17.3  lbs.  per  head;  being  an  increase  of  14.6  -per  head, 
or  0.41  lbs.  per  day.  On  the  15th  November,  they  weighed 
177  lbs. — an  increase,  in  35  da3'S,  of  90.2  lbs.,  or  18  lbs.  per 
head,  being  0.50  per  day.  In  another  case,  he  found  that 
eight  pigs  that  weighed  at  a  month  old  14.3  lbs.  per  head, 
at  a  year  old  weighed  165  lbs.  per  head;  being  a  gain  of 
150  lbs.  each  in  el-even  months,  or  less  than  half  a  pound 
per  day. 

Milk  Yielded  by  Dam. 

We  have  weighed  many  pigs  at  four  to  six  weeks  old,  and 
found  the  weight  to  range  from  12  to  18  lbs.  Thus  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  pig  increases  in  weight  from  birth  to 
weaning  about  fivefold,  and  then  only  has  a  weight  of  about 
15  lbs.  This  growth  generally  comes  from  the  milk  of  the 
(him  m  the  short  time  of  four  or  five  weeks.  What  an  im- 
mense drain  this  must  be  on  the  mother,  and  how  impor- 


464  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

tant  is  it  that  she  should  be  well  fed  during  the  period  of 
suckling.  She  has  often  to  produce  more  food  in  her  milk 
than  is  contained  in  the  milk  of  an  excellent  cow,  weighing 
three  times  as  much.  Dr.  Miles,  of  the  Michigan  Agri- 
cultural College,  found  that  Essex  pigs  three  weeks  old 
consumed  3}i  lbs.  of  milk  each,  per  day,  the  first  Aveek,  and 
nearly  7  lbs.  per  day  the  second  week.  A  litter  of  eight 
pigs  at  this  age  would  drink  some  24  quarts  of  cow's  milk 
per  day.  To  enable  the  mother  to  give  this  large  quantity 
of  food  for  her  young,  her  diet  must  be  rich  and  varied. 
We  have  found  three  gallons  of  skim-milk,  two  quarts  of 
corn-meal,  and  four  quarts  of  oats  and  peas  ground  together 
an  excellent  diet  for  a  large  sow  with  nine  pigs.  This 
barely  keeps  her  from  losing  flesh.  If  you  have  not  the 
milk,  one  quart  of  oil-meal  may  be  substituted  and  the 
other  food  increased  about  two  quarts,  all  given  in  a  thin 
slop. 

Rations  for  Young  Pigs. 

Preparatory  to  weaning,  pigs  should  be  encouraged  to  eat 
food  with  the  dam.  They  will  learn  to  drink  milk  quite  early, 
but  do  not  take  to  eating  solid  food  until  some  three  weeks 
old.  The  great  majority  of  farmers  have  skim-milk  to  feed 
young  pigs;  but  in  the  absence  of  this  best  substitute  for 
the  milk  of  the  dam,  the  solid  food  should  be  prepared  by 
cooking.  There  are  many  rations  which  will  be  appropriate 
to  young  pigs  without  milk,  such  as  wheat  middlings,  oats 
and  corn-meal,  in  equal  portions,  cooked  together:  or  4 
parts  oats,  4  parts  corn  and  1  part  oil-meal,  cooked;  or  0 
parts  peas,  5  parts  corn  and  1  part  flax-seed,  cooked;  or  oats 
and  peas  ground  together  and  cooked ;  or  potatoes,  corn 
and  oat-meal,  cooked;  or  4  parts  corn,  2  parts  oats  and  1 
part  decorticated  cotton-cake,  and  many  other  similar  com- 
binations of  food.  But  corn-meal  alone  is  a  very  unprofitable 
ration  for  young  pigs.  The  food  should  contain  all  the 
elements  necessary   to  growing  the   frame  and  muscular 


THE  pia.  465 

system.     Corn  or  corn-meal  is  very  inadequate  for  this  jnir- 
pose,  it  being  OG  per  cent,  starch,  7  per  cent,  fat,  and  only 
about  10  per  cent,  nitrogenous  food,  with  too  small  a  por- 
tion of  phosphate  of  lime  to  build  the  bones.     We  have 
seen  the  worst  results  from  attempts  to  grow  good  pigs  upon 
corn-meal  alone.     We  saw  one  case  of  three  pigs  fed  upon 
corn-meal,  prepared  in  the  best  way,  to  induce^thcm  to  eat 
largely  of  it  with  the  expectation   of   producing  a  large 
growth  at  an  early  age.    The  result  was,  that,  at  130  days  old, 
these  pigs  were  mere  squabs  of  fat,  almost  spherical  in  form, 
and  their  bones  and  muscles  so  weak  that  two  of  them  could 
not  stand  but  a  moment,  and  had  to  sit  upon  their  haunches  ; 
yet  these  pigs  only  weighed  00  lbs.  each— at  least  40  lbs! 
less  than  if  they  had  been  fed  a  proper  ration.    It  is  very  un- 
skillful feeding  that  will  not  produce  an  average  growth  of 
one  pound  live  weight  per  day.     If  the  feeder  has  plenty  of 
skim-milk,  then   cooked  corn-meal  mixed  with  the  milk 
makes  a  vei-y  desirable  ration— the  skim-milk  being  rich  in 
albuminoids  and  the  mineral  elements  necessary  to  grow  a 
muscular  and  rangy  young  animal.    Length  and  breadth  of 
body  are  necessary  to  build  rapid  growth  upon.     This  devel- 
opment cannot  be  attained  without  the  proper  food  ;  but 
with   either  of  the  rations  above  recommended,   and   es- 
pecially  the   skim-milk   and   corn-meal   ration,    the    best 
result  may  be  reached.      Skim-milk  alone  has  too  large  a 
proportion  of  albuminoids  t-.  cai-bo-hydrates,  being  about 
four-ninths  of  muscle-forniii.o   food,  or  1   of  casein  and 
albumen  to  1.2^  of  milk,  sugar  and  oil.     The  proportion 
should  be,  as  in  whole  milk,  1  to  2.25.     If,  then,  one  quart 
of  skim-milk  is  added  to  1  lb.   of  cooked  corn-meal,  the 
starch  and  oil  of  the  meal  will  make  the  proportion  right ; 
and,  fed  in  this  way,  a  quart  of  skim-milk  is  about  equal! 
in  food  value,  to  a  pound  of  corn-meal;    or  112  lbs.  of 
skim-milk  fed  with  56  lbs.  of  cooked  corn-meal,  is  equal  in 
growth  of  pork  to  two  bushels  of  corn.     But  if  the  milk 


466  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

is  fed  alone,  the  nitrogenous  elements  are  in  excess,  and  not 
fully  utilized.  This  illustrates  the  advantage  of  mingling 
a  variety  of  elements  in  the  food-ration,  and  these  elements 
should  be  selected  with  reference  to  the  proper  balance  of 
all  the  constituents. 

The  food  of  the  young  pig  should  be  in  liquid  form,  and 
cooked,  to  render  it  easier  of  digestion  ;  and,  as  the  suckling 
pig  is  accustomed  to  take  nourishment  from  its  dam  many 
times  a  day,  he  should  be  fed,  after  weaning,  five  times  per 
day  for  some  weeks,  and  then  gradually  reduced  to  three 
feeds  per  day. 

Feeding  Whey  to  Pigs. 

Whey  may  also  profitably  be  fed  to  pigs ;  but  even  greater 
care  is  required  to  snpply  the  missing  constituents  of  the 
whey  than  in  feeding  calves,  especially  if  the  jngs  are  young. 
See  pages  242,  243.  The  young  pigs  cannot  properly  be 
grown  upon  whey  alone,  as  they  get  less  of  other  food  than 
the  calf.  Pigs  are  usually  kei)t  in  pen,  and  there  is  not 
food  in  the  whey  to  grow  the  bones  and  muscle  ;  and  this 
explains  the  cause  of  disease  among  small  pigs  attempted 
to  be  raised  at  cheese  factories  upon  whey  alone.  The  only 
case  where  whey  alone  may  sometimes  be  fed  safely  to  hogs 
is,  when  the  hogs  are  full  grown,  with  well  developed  frame 
and  muscle,  but  lean,  requiring  to  be  fattened.  Such  hogs 
will  sometimes  fatten  very  rapidly  upon  whey  alone — the 
whey  furnishing  the  materials  to  make  fat,  rounding  out 
the  body  into  fine  proportions.  This  mode  of  feeding  may 
be  pursued  for  three  months  with  such  hogs,  producing  a 
good  result.  But  when  the  young  pig  is  to  be  grown  upon 
whey,  it  must  be  mixed  with  other  food,  as  directed  for  the 
calf.  The  pig  should  also  have  green  grass  given  in  pen 
every  day.  We  have  found  whey  to  pay  a  fine  profit  when  fed 
to  shoats  of  80  lbs.  weight,  somewhat  lean  at  the  start. 
To  experiment,  we  put  up  6  shoats  of  80  lbs.  weight  on  the 


THE    PIG.  467 

average,  costing  5  cents  per  pound,  or  84  per  head.  These 
pigs  were  fed  M  lb.  oil-meal,  %  lbs.  wheat-bran,  and  VA.  lbs. 
of  corn-meal  eacli,  per  day,  in  4  gallons  of  sweet  whey. 
This  was  the  average  ration  for  six  months,  or  180  days, 
commencing  on  May  1st.  The  gain  was  2T0  lbs.  each,  or 
\M  lbs.  per  day.  The  cost  was  as  follows :  90  lbs.  of  oil- 
meal,  $1.35;  360  lbs.  of  wheat-bran,  82. TO;  270  lbs.  of 
corn-meal,  82.70 — amounting  to  86.75 — add  cost  of  pig, 
and  we  have  810.75.  The  pigs  averaged  in  weight  350  lbs., 
and  brought  6  cents,  or  821  per  head.  Deducting  the  cost, 
leaves  810.25  to  be  credited  to  the  whey.  This  is  81.42  per 
100  gallons,  or,  the  whey  from  a  cow  (500  gallons)  worth 
87.05  per  year.  In  the  West  this  extra  food  would  cost  less, 
and  make  the  whey  still  more  valuable.  The  sugar  of  milk 
in  the  whey  is  very  soluble,  and  will  lay  on  fat  rapidly  if 
the  other  constituents  are  added. 

In  growing  the  young  pig  upon  whey,  we  do  not  use  corn- 
meal  until  the  pig  has  reached  a  weight  of  some  40  to  60 
lbs.;  before  that  the  ration  is  very  similar  to  that  given  for 
the  calf.  The  small  pig  will  increase  in  weight  more,  in 
proportion  to  the  food  eaten,  than  the  older  shoat,  but  it 
requires  more  care  in  feeding.  It  will  be  found  that  2  lbs. 
can  be  put  on  the  young  pig  with  the  same  food  that  will 
produce  IK  lbs.  on  the  older  shoat;  but,  as  the  young  pigs 
cost  more  per  pound,  there  is  not  any  more  profit  m  feed- 
ing them  when  purchased.  Shoats  of  60  to  80  lbs.  weight 
can  be  purchased  in  market  for  only  a  trifle  more  than  e 
pig  of  15  lbs.;  so  that  it  is  more  profitable  to  buy  shoats 
than  young  pigs.  It  must  be  obvious  from  this  discussion 
of  whey  that  dairymen  are  far  from  making  the  best  use  of 
it  generally.  They  want  to  grow  an  animal  on  whey  alone, 
so  that  they  may  make  something  out  of  it;  but  the  whey 
possesses  only  enough  of  some  elements  to  keep  the  animal 
alive,  without  growing,  and  is  likely  to  create  disease;  so 
that  this  penurious  use  of  it  is  about  equivalent  to  throw- 


468  FEEDING   AXniALS. 

ing  it  away.  It  must  be  remembered  that  whey  is  93  per 
cent,  water,  and,  if  it  were  a  well  balanced  food,  the  water 
is  in  too  great  j^roportion  for  tlie  health  of  animals.  If 
grass  were  93  per  cent,  water  it  would  be  likely  to  produce 
disease.  But  the  whey  when  mixed  with  dry  food  becomes 
a  healthy  ration.  The  study  of  the  fjirmer  should  be  to 
make  the  most  of  everything. 

Grass  as  a  Part  of  the  Eation. 

We  have  before  spoken  of  the  pig  as  a  grass-eating  animal, 
and  this  part  of  its  nature  must  not  be  overlooked.  Great 
losses  occur  every  year  by  confiniug  pigs  to  concentrated 
food  alone.  It  is  doing  no  greater  violence  to  the  nature 
of  the  horse  to  feed  him  wholly  upon  grain  than  the  pig. 
In  a  natural  state  both  are  supported  upon  grass.  In  the 
wmtei,  hay  is  substituted  for  grass  with  the  horse,  and  no 
one  expects  a  horse  to  be  healthy  without  a  certain  proportion 
of  fibrous  food  ;  and  we  have  no  more  reason  to  expect  the 
pig  to  be  healthy  and  vigorous  in  digestion  and  without  a 
small  percentage  of  bulky  fibrous  food.  The  rule,  in  feeding 
all  animals,  should  be,  to  follow  Nature  as  closely  as  possible. 
"We  have  tried  several  experiments  to  test  the  natural  system 
ot  feeding  grass  as  a  part  of  the  ration,  supplemented  by 
grain,  m  connection  with  the  system  of  pure  grain-feeding. 
Some  of  these  experiments  have  been  published  before,  but 
they  will  bear  repeating. 

A  litter  of  six  pigs  were  weaned  at  five  weeks  old,  and 
divided  into  two  lots  of  three  each  and  of  equal  weight. 
Each  lot  was  put  into  a  separate  pen  on  the  first  day  of  June. 
One  lot  was  fed  wholly  upon  corn-meal  soaked  twelve  hours 
in  cold  water,  and  given  ad  lihitum.  The  other  lot  had  a 
small  portion  of  green  clover,  cut  short  with  a  straw-cutter, 
and  mixed  with  corn-meal.  Only  one  quart  of  this  cut 
clover  was  given  at  first  to  each  pig,  with  all  the  meal  it 
would  eat.    This  meal  being  mixed  with  clover,  had  its  par- 


THE    PIG.  469 

tides  separated  by  the  fibrous  food,  and,  when  eaten,  went 
into  the  stomach  in  a  spongy  condition,  so  that  the  gastric 
juice  could  penetrate  and  circulate  through  the  mass  as 
water  through  a  sponge.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  digest- 
ing fluid  comes  in  contact  with  every  part  of  the  mass  of 
.  food  at  once,  and  the  digestion  must  thus  be  accomplished 
evenly  and  rapidly.  But,  when  the  meal  is  fed  alone,  it 
necessarily  goes  into  the  stomach  in  the  solid,  plastic  form 
of  dough,  and  the  gastric  juice  cannot  readily  penetrate  the 
mass,  but  must  mix  with  it,  little  by  little,  whilst  it  is 
slowly  moved  by  the  muscular  contraction  of  the  stomach. 
The  lot  of  pigs  with  the  clover  and  meal  were  always  lively, 
always  ready  for  their  feed  ;  whilst  the  other  lot,  with  meal 
alone,  ate  greedily  for  a  time,  and  then  became  mincing  and 
dainty  for  a  few  days,  indicating  a  feverish  state  of  system, 
taking  little  but  water  for  a  few  meals  ;  and  by  fasting  they 
appeared  to  recover  the  tone  of  the  stomach  and  the  appetite, 
rnd  go  on  eating  vigorously  again.  This  was  repeated  many 
times  during  the  five  months  the  experiment  continued. 
On  weighing  the  two  lots  at  the  end,  the  one  fed  on  meal 
alone  averaged  150  lbs.  each;  the  lot  on  clover  and  meal 
averaged  210  lbs.  each,  or  40  per  cent,  more  for  being 
treated  according  to  their  nature  as  grass-eating  animals. 
Each  lot  consumed  the  same  amount  of  meal.  The  clover 
was  intended,  principally,  as  a  divisor  for  the  meal,  and 
amounted  to  not  more  than  two  quarts  at  a  feed.  We  have 
often  since  followed  tliis  plan  in  summer,  giving  all  the  cut 
clover  they  would  eat,  mixed  with  the  various  kinds  of 
grain  used,  and  it  is  a  most  excellent  system  when  incon- 
venient to  give  pasture.     This  may  be  considered  the 

Soiling  System  for  Swine, 

and,  Avhen  properly  conducted,  is  capable  of  being  carried 
on  with  a  large  herd,  by  simple  subdivision  into  lots  of 
twenty  each.     An  acre  of  good  clover  will  soil  four  times  as 


4T0  FEEDIXG    ANIMALS. 

many  pigs  as  it  will  pasture,  giving  them  a  full  ration  of 
grass,  with  this  great  advantage  over  pasture,  that  you  may 
mingle  the  grain  ration  with  it  so  as  to  produce  the  most 
rapid  growth  with  perfect  health.  Pigs  in  pasture,  fed  on 
grain  at  the  same  time,  are  apt  to  take  mostly  to  either  the 
grain  or  the  grass,  and  thus  not  make  as  rapid  progress  as 
when  the  ration  is  properly  combined.  We  have  never  seen 
a  pig  that  did  not  relish  green  clover  and  grain  mixed  to- 
gether. It  may  be  mingled  in  any  proportion  the  feeder 
chooses,  and  the  animal  thus  be  pushed  slowly  or  rapidly, 
as  circumstances  require. 

This  system  should  become  the  prevailing  one  in  the  West 
— adopted  as  a  matter  of  economy — producing  greater  re- 
sults from  the  same  capital  and  labor.  A  swine-herder,  under 
this  system,  may  j^repare  the  ration  and  feed  500  pigs,  look- 
ing after  all  their  wants,  and  producing  much  more  uniform 
growth  than  under  the  present  system.  The  cost  of  labor 
per  head  will  be  very  trivial. 

A  modification  of  this  plan  may  be  adopted  in  connection 
with  pasture,  by  feeding  the  grain,  mixed  with  a  small  por- 
tion of  short-cut  grass,  in  long  troughs.  Any  green  food 
may  be  used  in  lieu  of  clover ;  such  as  green  rye,  oats,  mil- 
let, Hungarian  grass,  green  peas,  etc.,  but  nothing,  except 
the  peas,  is  equal  to  the  clover.  This  system  will  be  con- 
sidered more  appropriate  to  Eastern  farms,  on  account  of 
their  limited  area,  and  is  especially  adapted  to  the  great 
want  of  the  Eastern  farmer — more  home-fertilizers.  The 
pig-pen  will  become  the  great  resource  of  better  tillage. 

The  Pig  ix  Winter. 

The  great  importance  of  this  class  of  stock  commercially, 
and  the  large  extent  to  which  its  flesh  is  used  for  home 
consumption,  demanded  a  thorough  discussion  of  its  man- 
agement in  all  its  phases. 

The  proper  system  of  winter-feeding  requires  to  be  better 


THE    PIG.  471 

settled.  The  old  "  storing "  system,  by  which  a  pig  is 
simply  kept  alive  during  winter,  that  it  may  be  ready  to 
grow  the  next  summer,  has  not  yet  been  wholly  given  up, 
but  may  be  found  in  full  operation  in  many  parts  of  our 
country.  It  does  seem  as  if  every  feeder  should  have  dis- 
covered the  utter  improvidence  of  this  practice.  If  pigs 
were  like  a  wagon,  a  bin  of  grain,  or  a  mow  of  hay,  that 
might  be  kept  over  winter  without  expense,  there  would  be 
some  excuse  for  it;  but  when  we  reflect  that  two-thirds  of 
a  full  ration  is  used  merely  as  the  food  of  support,  without 
adding  anything  to  the  weight  or  value  of  the  pig,  this 
practice  of  keeping  pigs  through  the  winter,  or  at  any 
other  time,  Avithout  constant  growth,  seems  absolutely 
indefensible. 

As  we  have  shown  in  previous  chapters,  time  is  a  most  im- 
portant factor  in  the  problem  of  pig-feeding.  Every  week 
that  a  pig  is  kept  without  growth,  the  feed  is  worse  than 
thrown  away,  because  it  takes  time  to  overcome  the  un- 
thrifty habit,  and  all  the  food  is  lost  till  growth  begins 
again.  It  is  thus  evident  that  the  skillful  feeder  must  strive 
after  continued  and  unremitting  growth. 

The  winter  season  should  be  no  exception  to  this  steady 
growth,  although  it  will  require  more  food  to  put  on  a 
pound  gain  in  winter  than  in  summer,  unless  the  tempera- 
ture in  the  pig-pen  is  raised  to  near  summer  warmth.  All 
animals  must  keep  up  their  heat  by  the  consumption  of 
food,  and  it  makes  a  great  difference  whether  the  surround- 
ing air  is  at  zero  or  sixty  degrees  above.  It  would  seem, 
therefore,  that  while  thrift  is  as  necessary  in  winter  as  sum- 
mer, the  feeder  way  control  the  temperature  and  save  a  large 
percentage  of  the  food  in  winter  growth. 

We  have  just  discussed  the  importance  of  grass  as  a 
part  of  the  ration  of  the  pig.  It  might  reasonably  be  sup- 
posed that  the  pig  would  require  some  fibrous  food  in  win- 
ter as  well  as  in  summer ;  and  if  green  clover  is  good  in 


47^  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

summer,  why  not  nicely-cured  clover  hay  in  winter  ? 
Having  established  the  necessity  of  grass,  in  its  season,  for 
the  promotion  of  health,  the  writer  experimented  also  on 
the  use  of  clover  hay  in  winter  as  an  addition  to  the  grain 
ration. 

Having  four  pigs  of  the  same  age,  and  about  the  same 
weight,  they  were  divided  into  two  lots  of  two  each.  Each 
lot  weighed  150  lbs.  at  the  commencement  of  the  experi- 
ment. One  lot  was  fed  corn-meal,  wet  up  with  hot  water, 
and  allowed  to  stand  some  ten  or  twelve  hours.  The  other 
lot  was  fed  about  two  quarts  each  of  short-cut  clover-hay, 
mixed  witli  corn-meal,  wet  up  with  hot  water,  and  allowed 
to  stand  the  same  length  of  time.  Eacli  lot  was  fed  with- 
out stint  upon  its  ration,  and  the  experiment  continued  for 
120  days.  As  in  the  experiment  with  grass,  the  lot  on 
clover-hay  and  meal  had  the  best  appetite,  ate  the  most 
steadily  and  showed  greater  thrift ;  but  the  lot  on  meal 
alone  were  apparently  healthier  than  those  on  meal  alone 
in  the  other  experiment;  but  they  were  older,  and,  the 
weather  being  colder,  were  not  so  feverish.  This  latter  lot 
gained  110  pounds  per  head  ;  whilst  the  lot  on  clover,  hay 
and  meal  gained  143  lbs.  each,  or  30  per  cent.  more.  Since 
this  we  have  often  fed  pigs  upon  fibrous  food  in  winter,  and 
always  successfully.  Feeding  clover-hay  in  winter  may  be 
novel;  but  why  should  it  not  be  considered  as  appropriate 
to  feed  pigs  clover-hay  in  winter,  as  to  feed  cattle  or  horses 
clover-hay  in  winter  ?  The  pig  eats  green  clover  in  sum- 
mer, if  he  can  get  it,  as  profitably  as  the  cow  or  horse  ;  and 
when  farmers  understand  the  true  system  of  feeding,  clover- 
hay  will  generally  make  part  of  the  winter  ration  of  pigs. 

Cob-meal  as  Pig  Food. 

As  bearing  upon  the  necessity  for  coarse  food  in  the 
ration,  we  will  give  some  experiments  made  with  the  meal 
of  corn  and  cob  ground  together. 


THE    PIG.  473 

There  has  been  a  great  variety  of  opinions  expressed 
upon  the  value  of  the  cob-meal,  many  supposing  it  to  be 
injurious  to  the  coatings  of  the  stomach,  even  in  horses, 
and  the  pig's  stomach  has  been  thought  by  some  as  inca- 
pable of  managing  such  hard  material  as  the  scales  of  cob  ; 
but  we  long  since  experimented  with  corn  and  cob-meal, 
and  found  all  these  adverse  opinions  merely  imaginary. 
We  have  fed  it  largely  both  to  swine  and  horses,  and  never 
saw  any  ill  effects  from  it,  but,  on  the  contrary,  found  it  a 
healthier  feed  than  clear  meal.  The  advantage  of  grinding 
the  cob  and  corn  together  is  not  altogether  in  the  nutri- 
ment of  the  cob,  but  because  the  cob,  being  a  coarser  and  a 
spongy  material,  gives  bulk,  and  divides  and  separates  the 
fine  meal,  so  as  to  allow  a  free  circulation  of  the  gastric 
juice  through  the  mass  in  the  stomach.  Corn-meal,  when 
wet  into  plastic  dough,  is  very  solid,  and  not  easily  pene- 
trated by  any  liquid ;  and  when  pigs  are  fed  wholly  on 
corn-meal,  they  often  suffer  with  fever  in  the  stomach,  be- 
cause the  meal  lies  there  too  long  undigested. 

We  will  here  give  the  experiment  of  two  farmers'  clubs 
in  Connecticut,  to  show  the  value  of  corn-meal,  corn  and 
cob-meal,  and  whole  corn.  We  condense  it  to  the  essen- 
tial facts. 

A  committee  of  the  two  farmers'  clubs  appointed  to  make 
the  experiment,  purchased  nine  thrifty  shoats  and  divided 
them  as  evenly  as  possible  into  three. lots,  placing  three  in 
each  of  three  separate  pens.  The  experiment  began  the 
first  of  April,  and  ended  the  sixth  of  June.    * 

Lot  No.  1  was  fed  1,332  pounds  of  corn  ground  into 
meal — clear  meal,  wet  in  pure  water.  Lot  No.  2  was  fed 
1,361  pounds  of  corn  and  cob-meal,  wet  up  m  water.  Lot 
No.  3  was  fed  1,192  pounds  of  corn  soaked  in  water. 

Results :  Lot  No.  1  weighed  at  the  beginning  of  the  ex- 
periment, 453  pounds;  at  slaughtering,  7G0  pounds;  gain 
in  live  weight,  307  pounds;  dressed  weight,  615K  pounds. 


474  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

Lot  No.  2  weighed  at  beginning,  4G7  pounds  ;  at  slaughter- 
ing, 761  pounds  ;  gain  in  live  weight,  294  pounds;  dressed 
weight,  593  pounds.  Lot  No.  3,  live  weight  at  start,  456 
pounds;  at  slaughtering,  689  pounds  ;  gain  in  live  weight, 
233  pounds ;  dressed  weight,  567  pounds. 

Lot  1  gained  in  live  weight  for  every  bushel  fed,  12.90 
pounds;  lot  2  gained  15.11  pounds;  lot  3  gained  10.38 
pounds  per  bushel.  Lot  1  took  4.34  pounds  of  meal  for  1 
pound  gain  in  live  weight,  and  5.37  pounds  for  1  pound 
dressed  weight.  Lot  2  required  4.62  pounds  to  make  1 
pound  live  weight,  and  5.93  pounds  for  1  pound  dressed 
pork.  Reducing  this  quantity  of  cob-meal  to  clear  meal, 
it  will  be  found  that  3.70  pounds  make  1  pound  live  weight, 
while  4.75  pounds  make  1  pound  of  dressed  pork.  Lot  3 
required  5.11  pounds  of  clear  corn  to  make  1  pound  live 
weight,  and  6.21  pounds  to  make  1  of  dressed  pork. 

This  was  a  valuable  experiment,  and  greatly  surprised 
the  committee  appointed  to  carry  it  out.  They  say :  ''We 
have  long  been  satisfied  that  a  certain  amount  of  coarse  ma- 
terial fed  to  cattle  with  concentrated  food  was  both  judi- 
cious, economical  and  profitable,  but  on  account  of  the 
peculiar  construction  of  the  pig's  stomach,  we  were  not 
prepared  for  the  result,  showing  the  desirability  of  feeding 
a  coarse  material  in  connection  with  corn-meal  to  pigs." 
This  experiment  shows  that  cob-meal  is  superior  in  feeding 
value  to  clear  whole  corn,  and  that  it  is  nearly  as  valuable, 
cob  and  all,  as  clear  meal.  Cob-meal  should  always  be 
ground  very  fine. 

As  we  are  treating  of  winter-feeding  it  will  be  appro- 
priate to  discuss  the  form  and  construction  of  the 

Swine  House, 

and  preliminary  to  the  description  of  a  plan  of  our  own, 
we  will  give  an  illustration  and  description  of  the  breeding 
pens  of  a  most  intelligent  practical  breeder  and  feeder  at 


SWINE   HOUSE. 


475 


?^<;ifcb^ta    ^ 

Swill  Troug 
on  which 
Steiiiner. 
Water  Barre 
Chimney. 
Gates  to  Fet 
C.    Watering 

^ 

c- 



_      1  L 
1  1 

"^ 

J   L. 
1  L 



1  L 
. 1  L 

1    1 

1  L 

1 

476  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

Neponset,  Illinois,  Dr.  Ezra  Stetson.  The  doctor  has 
been  a  very  successful  breeder  and  feeder  for  the  general 
market.  We  are  indebted  for  the  illustration  to  the  National 
Live  Stoch  Journal.  The  engravings  are  upon  a  scale  of  32 
feet  to  the  inch. 

Figure  16  shows  a  side  elevation  of  the  building,  which 
is  a  very  plain,  unostentatious  structure,  but  substantially 
built.     Figure  17  shows  the  ground  floor,  with  its  sub- 
divisions.    The  main  elevation  at  the  right  (Fig.  16)  is 
devoted  to  corn-cribs  and  the  cooking  apparatus.     This 
part  of  the  building  is  26  x  48  feet,  and  is  divided  as  shown 
in  Figure  17;  L  being  a  corn-crib,  9  x20  feet;  N  a  corn- 
crib,  9  X  48  feet ;  M  a  hall,  or  drive-way,  8  x  48  feet ;    P, 
platform  scales  for  weighing  grain,  hogs,  etc.;   0  is  a  plat- 
form outside  of,  but  adjoining,  the  corn-crib  on  the  south 
side,  and  is  16  x  56  feet,  with  doors  opening  to  the  corn-crib, 
as  shown  m  the  diagram.     This  platform  is  surrounded  by 
substantial  fence.     Before  feeding,  the  gates  G,  G,  G  are 
all  closed,  and  the  platform  swept  perfectly  clean.     The 
corn  is  then  placed  on  the  floors,  the  gates  are  opened,  and 
the  hogs  walk  in  to  their  repast.     When  it  is  designed  to 
load  a  part  of  the  hogs  in  the  wagon,  to  take  them  to  the 
market,  the  gates  G  G  are  closed,  in  a  line  with  the  west 
end  of  the  platform,  leaving  the  southern  gate,  which  swings 
across  the  platform,  open.     As  many  hogs  as  are  wanted 
are  then  driven  into  this  wing,  or  L,  of  the  platform,  and 
the  south  gate  is  closed  across  the  platform  from  the  fence 
to  the  southeast  corner  of  the  corn-crib.     The  hogs  are  thus 
securely  confined  in  a  small  inclosure.      The  large,  outside 
gate  G  is  then  swung  round  toward  the  corn-crib,  across 
the  platform,  and  this  reduces  the  space  to  which  the  hogs 
are  confined  to  about  one-half.     The  wagon  is  then  backed 
up  to  the  small  gate  G,  which  is  then  opened,  and  the  hogs 
are  loaded  without  difficulty. 
Ky  represe^ts  a  platform,  18  x  48  feet,  constructed  simi- 


THE    PIG.  477 

larly  to  the  oue  at  0,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  corn-crib. 
This  is  used  for  feeding  the  pigs.  Dr.  S.  uses  a  steaming 
apparatus  to  make  slops  for  the  sows  and  pigs.  This  he  be- 
lieves causes  the  sows  to  give  much  more  milk  and  thus 
to  hasten  the  growth  of  the  pigs.  Long  troughs  are  placed 
upon  this  floor,  K.  The  gates  are  closed  ;  the  floors  and 
troughs  are  thoroughly  cleaned;  the  slop  i^  put  in  the 
troughs,  as  described  in  the  communication  of  the  Doctor, 
to  the  Journal,  given  below ;  the  gates  are  opened,  and  the 
pigs  rush  to  the  feast. 

The  long  wing  to  the  left  of  the  corn-crib  and  feeding 
floors  is  cut  up  into  pens,  as  shown  by  the  diagram.  These 
pens  are  6  x  10  feet,  and  the  alley  {H),  running  through 
the  center,  is  four  feet  in  width,  opening  at  one  end  on  to 
the  feeding  floor  (/i),  for  pigs.  At  the  extreme  left  of  this 
wing  is  a  large,  inclosed  feeding  floor  or  pen  (/),  24x24 
feet.  Dr.  S.  is  strenuously  opposed  to  putting  anything 
between  the  beds  upon  which  the  pigs  sleep  and  the  roof 
which  covers  them,  as  he  considers  free,  upward  ventilation 
essential  to  the  health  of  his  pigs.  Hence,  he  is  opposed 
to  all  two-story  pig  pens.  He  usually  keeps  from  300  to 
500  hogs. 

The  following  is  Dr.  Stetson's  explanation  of  his  piggery : 
"  All  corn-raisers  know  that  the  foundations  of  a  corn- 
crib  can  hardly  be  made  substantial  enough.  Ours  rests 
upon  six  rows  of  stone  and  brick  pillars,  tliirteen  in  each 
row,  with  the  bottoms  of  the  sills  about  two  feet  from  the 
ground.  The  feeding  floors  are  on  the  same  level  with  the 
floor  of  the  crib,  and  have  a  drop  of  six  inches  in  the  six- 
teen feet,  to  carry  off  the  water  from  rains. 

"  The  feeding  floors  rest  upon  four  rows  of  posts  set  in 
the  ground,  twelve  in  each  row,  and  sawn  off  to  the  proper 
level.  Shoulders  are  then  sawed  on  one  side  of  these  posts, 
and  2  by  8  joists  spiked  to  them,  on  which  the  planks  are 
laid.     The  outside  row  of  joosts  should  extend  three  feet 


478  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

above  the  feeding  floor,  and  be  closely  boarded  up  all  round 
except  the  gate  to  the  entrance. 

*'  The  watering  barrel  may  be  placed  where  convenient. 
Two  kerosene  barrels  are  set  side  by  side,  connected  by  a 

/short  piece  of  gas-pipe.  Water  is  let  into  the  barrel  with 
the  valve  and  float  from  the  reservoir,  and  can  rise  no 
higher  than  confined  by  the  float,  and  as  fast  as  drnnk  out 
will  be  immediately  filled — provided,  always,  the  reservoir 
is  not  allowed  to  get  empty.  By  this  arrangement  2iperen- 
^  nial  spring  is  brought  to  the  very  place  wanted. 

"The  cooking  arrangement  will  probably  be  omitted  by 
the  great  majority,  should  they  build  upon  a  similar  plan. 
In  raising  large  numbers  of  pigs,  it  is  next  to  impossible  to 
make  slops  for  the  sows  and  their  pigs  without  some  sort  of 
a  heating  apparatus,  and  I  think  this  has  the  merit  of  be- 
ing convenient.  We  make  the  ivind  do  all  the  lifting  of 
the  water,  and  a  very  small  quantity  of  fuel,  rightly  applied, 
will  boil  a  large  quantity  of  water.  The  cooking  tub  may 
be  of  any  desired  size.  Ours  holds  five  or  six  barrels,  and 
is  made  Avith  a  hinged  valve;  and  the  food  is  drj6|)ped  into 
the  cooling  trough,  where  it  is  made  of  the  proper  consis- 
tency by  the  addition  of  cold  water,  drawn  from  the  cooling 
trough,  into  a  trudc.  and  wheeled  upon  the  platform,  or 
where  desired,  and  then  drawn  into  troughs.  There  is  no 
lift  in  (]  of  water  or  swill  at  any  place. 

"  Our  piggery  is  very  cheaply  constructed.  Large  cedar 
posts  are  sawn  in  half  and  set  in  the  ground,  for  the  frame- 
work. Rths,  2  by  4,  are  spiked  to  these  posts,  to  which  the 
weather-boarding  is  nailed,  ^riie  tops  are  sawn  off  to  the 
proper  level,  and  the  plates  spiked  to  them,  upon  which  the 
rafters  rest.  These  posts  are  set  six  feet  apart;  and  as  our 
breeding  pens  are  six  feet  by  ten,  they  form  one  side  of 
each  compartment.  The  partitions  are  removed  when  not 
wanted  for  breeding  pens,  and  the  whole  space  used  as  a 
sleeping  floor  for  the  fattening  of  hogs  or  pigs. 


THE    PIG.  479 

"  The  floor  to  the  piggery  is  entirely  unconnected  with 
the  framework.  Stringers  are  laid  crosswise  of  the  build- 
ing on  which  the  plank  floor  is  laid.  The  alley  is  four  feet 
wide,  with  a  door  to  each  pen.  With  this  arrangement  of 
gates  and  doors,  one  man  can  put  in  place  the  most  refrac- 
tory old  sow,  or  any  other  hog. 

'^Let  me  say  that  our  floors  are  of  hard  pine  plank,  2  by 
10  inches  ;  have  been  laid  for  eight  or  nine  years,  and  that 
about  200  hogs  have  been  fed  upon  them  each  year,  and 
they  now  look  as  though  they  would  last  as  much  longer.  ' 

Another  Plan  of  Swine  House. 

As  pork  is  largely  grown  in  the  West  and  accommoda- 
tion is  required  for  large  herds,  it  will  hardly  be  appropri- 
ate to  give  the  description  of  a  pen  with  a  less  capacity 
than  for  feeding  200  hogs  in  winter.  As  we  have  seen, 
economy  in  feeding  requires  that  the  pen  should  be  warm, 
in  order  that  the  temperature  may  seldom,  if  ever,  go  below 
GO  degrees.  With  so  large  a  number,  the  extra  food  re- 
quired to  keep  up  animal  heat  would  soon  pay  for  a  warm 
pen.  Perhaps  the  cheapest  plan  to  build  a  warm  pen  is  to 
use  2  X  -i-inch  studding,  placed  three  feet  apart,  boarded  up 
outside  and  in,  leaving  a  four-inch  air  space;  or,  if  the 
weather-boarding  is  to  be  perpendicular,  ribs,  2x4  inches, 
may  be  spiked  to  outside  of  the  studding,  and  the  weather- 
boarding  nailed  to  these,  leaving  a  six-inch  air  space,  to  be 
filled  with  saw-dust  or  short-cut  straw,  well  rammed  in. 
To  prevent  this  filling  from  being  a  harbor  for  vermin, 
mix  a  little  coal-tar,  or  chloride  of  lime,  or  fine  air-slaked 
quick-lime  with  every  layer.  With  this  latter  j^lan  the  out- 
side may  be  built  of  cedar  posts,  in  the  manner  described 
by  Dr.  Stetson,  above,  placing  cedar  posts  in  the  ground, 
six  feet  apart.  The  he-ight  of  the  pen  at  the  eaves  should 
be  8  feet.  Our  plan  requires  a  building  28  feet  wide,  and 
150  feet  long,  besides  corn-cribs,  cooking  room  and  breed- 


480  FEEDING   ANlMALg. 

ing  pens.  The  floor  is  placed  two  feet  above  the  ground. 
Each  pen  is  to  be  10  x  15,  accommodating  ten  hogs.  The 
feednig  floor  is  8  feet  wide  with  a  tier  of  pens  on  each  side. 
This  pUm  of  swine  house  is  intended  as  the  most  conven- 
ient form  for  economy  of  labor  in  cooking  the  food  for  a 
large  number  of  hogs.  It  is  also  most  convenient  for  any 
other  system  of  feeding,  if  done  in  pens.  A  trough,  15  feet 
long,  next  the  feeding  floor,  must  be  provided  for  each  j^en, 
with  a  swing  door  over  each  trough,  to  shut  the  hogs  off 
while  the  feed  is  being  put  in.  The  hogs  come  out  of  the 
pen  over  the  trough  on  a  light  bridge  through  a  door  in  the 
partition  next  the  feeding  floor. 

A  Self-Clean^ing  Pen. 

Still  regarding  the  greatest  economy  of  labor,  we  would 
construct  the  floor  as  follows :  Xext  and  under  the  trough 
is  a  strip  of  solid  floor  2  feet  wide  ;  and  5  feet  next  to  this 
is  an  open,  slatted  floor,  composed  of  oak  strips,  IK  inches 
thich  by  2K  inches  wide,  set  edgewise,  1  inch  apart,  for  the 
passage  of  the  manure  below.  And  next  the  wall  is  a  strip 
of  tight  floor,  3  feet  wide,  for  bedding,  slanting  1%  inches 
toward  slatted  floor,  so  that  water  will  run  to  slats.  Under 
the  open,  slatted  floor  is  a  sli  ding-board,  set  slaw  ting  to  the 
outside  wall,  along  the  side  of  which  wagons  can  be  driven, 
and,  letting  down  a  long  swing  door,  the  manure  shoveled 
in  and  carried  away.  The  pen  cleans  itself,  all  works 
through  the  slats,  and  no  manual  labor  is  required.  If  bed- 
ding is  used,  it  may  be  placed  on  the  tight  floor  next  the 
wall  for  the  hogs  to  lie  on.  Seldom  any  droppings  will  fall 
on  the  tight  floor.  To  secure  pure  air,  put  a  ventilator 
2x4  feet  m  the  ridge,  every  twenty  feet,  with  slats  on  side 
to  prevent  storm  from  driving  in.  For  the  admission  of 
fresh  air,  a  slide  7  x  14  inches  may  be  placed  in  the  outside 
wall  between  each  two  pens,  one  foot  above  the  floor,  which 
can  be  opened  or  closed  at  pleasure.     This  will  cause  a  cir- 


THE    PIG.  481 

culation  of  air  and  keep  it  pure.  The  feeding  floor  is  wide 
enough  to  drive  a  wagon  through,  and  loads  of  dry  earth 
may  be  brought  in  and  thrown  over  the  open  floor,  which 
mixes  with  the  manure  and  deodorizes  it.  This  open 
floor  is  not  an  experiment,  but  was  in  use  by  the  late 
J.  J.  Mechi,  in  England,  for  30  years  ;  and  the  author 
has  used  it  for  single  pens  and  found  it  to  work  well.  No 
bedding  is  required,  and  the  pigs  keep  much  cleaner  than 
is  usual  on  tight  floors  where  bedding  is  used. 

It  is  intended  to  have  the  outside  tightly  closed  below  the 
floor,  so  as  to  prevent  as  much  as  possible  the  circulation  of 
air  under  the  slats.  With  a  long-handled  shovel  the  manure 
is  easily  loaded  and  requires  no  other  labor  than  hauling 
to  the  field. 

Since  writing  this  description  of  the  self-cleaning  pen, 
the  author  has  constructed  one  with  iron  slats  or  bars,  one 
inch  wide  and  t^-inch  thick  placed  i-inch  apart.  This  grat- 
ing maybe  four  or  five  feet  wide  ;  ours  is  four  feet,  and  the 
wooden  floor  for  bedding  is  also  four  feet,  with  a  grade  2 
inches  toward  the  grating,  so  that  all  liquid  will  run  toward 
the  grating.  This  proves  to  be  a  completely  self-cleaning 
pen.  This  wrought-iron  grating,  with  bars  so  thin,  is  not 
liable  to  clog,  as  is  the  wooden  slats,  from  being  so  deep  up 
or  down.  This  floor  and  grate  is  elevated  18  inches,  and 
the  bottom  is  concreted  so  as  to  save  all  tlie  liquid  andsohd 
dropping.  A  door  one  foot  wide  is  let  down  and  the  ma- 
nure is  easily  taken  out  with  a  long-handled  shovel  from 
the  outside.  It  will  only  require  cleaning  once  in  three 
months.     It  is  a  pleasure,  clean  liogs  in  a  clean  pen. 

Cooking  Hoc;  Food. 

When  cooking   is  to   be  done   for  so   large   a   number, 
economy  requires  an  apparatus  in  proportion.     An  eight- 
horse  boiler  and  engine  should  be  placed  m  an  extension  of 
the  swine  house,  which  can  shell  and  grind  the  corn,  or  bet- 
21 


482  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

ter  to  grind  the  corn  in  the  ear,  leaving  the  cob  to  give  bulk 
in  the  stomach,  and  cook  the  meal  into  the  most  palatable 
mush,  for  200  or  more  hogs.  And,  that  the  cooked  food 
may  be  handled  with  the  least  labor,  two  box-cars,  on  wheels 
two  feet  high,  each  car  being  five  feet  wide,  three  feet  high 
and  sixteen  feet  long,  holding  about  200  bushels,  are  re- 
quired. There  is  a  track  in  the  middle  of  the  feeding  floor 
on  which  these  cars  are  run.  One  of  these  cars,  when  full, 
weighing  some  four  tons,  may  be  handled  by  one  man,  and 
run  along  the  track,  so  as  to  feed  the  pigs  upon  either  side 
of  the  feeding  floor.  A  small  rope  runs  the  whole  length  of 
the  feeding  floor  and  is  fastened  at  the  other  end,  whilst  at 
the  car  end  it  runs  over  a  small  pulley  or  windlass,  and  with 
crank  the  feeder  moves  the  car  along  from  pen  to  pen.  The 
mush,  when  tliin  enough,  runs  through  a  spout  to  the 
trough  in  the  pen  on  either  side.  The  feeder  soon  learns 
how  to  apportion  it  to  each  pen.  The  car,  when  full,  con- 
tains 40  bushels  of  meal,  20  bushels  of  cut  clover-hay  and 
G-40  gallons  of  water,  or  16  gallons  for  each  bushel  of  meal. 
The  water  is  pumped  by  the  engine  into  an  elevated  tank, 
holding  the  requisite  quantity,  which  is  heated  nearly  to 
the  boiling  point  in  the  tank,  and  then  drawn  into  the  car 
through  a  pipe.  There  are  marks  inside  the  car  to  indicate 
each  hundred  gallons,  so  as  to  show  the  feeder  when  he  has 
the  requisite  quantity.  This  water  is  brought  to  a  brisk 
boil  in  the  car,  when  the  meal  may  be  sifted  into  the  boil- 
ing water  through  a  sieve  suspended  above.  The  meal, 
when  ground,  is  elevated  into  a  hopper  over  the  sieve,  and, 
being  drawn  through  the  spout  upon  the  sieve  whilst  that 
is  swung  back  and  forth,  the  meal  is  sifted  evenly  into  the 
boiling  water  in  the  car,  and  no  lumps  are  formed.  After 
I  he  meal  is  sifted  in,  one-half  bushel  of  cut  clover-hay  to 
each  bushel  of  meal  is  mixed  in  with  a  rake.  When  the 
mush  is  too  thick  to  run  it  is  taken  out  with  a  scoop  and 
put  into  the  troughs.      We  have  found  the  best  way  to  ap- 


THE    PIG.  483 

ply  steam  to  such  a  mass,  is  to  run  it  through  a  coil  inside, 
placed  on  the  bottom.  The  coil  is  in  two  parts,  running 
backward  and  forward  from  the  center  each  way,  three 
turns  of  the  coil,  terminating  in  a  goose-neck  at  each  end 
of  the  car,  which  goose-neck  comes  above  the  water  and  de- 
scends within  four  inches  of  the  bottom.  This  effectually 
prevents  the  pipe  from  filling  with  water  or  mush  ;  and  the 
steam,  in  passing  around  this  coil,  keeps  it  very  hot,  and, 
discharging  near  the  bottom,  keeps  all  the  heat  in.  To  as- 
sist in  keeping  the  heat  in,  a  folding  cover  may  be  used, 
which  is  spread  out  in  a  moment,  and  removed  as  soon. 
When  mixed,  it  is  allowed  to  cook  for  an  hour  and  a  half. 
It  requires  no  stirring,  as  in  boiling  over  a  fire.  These  cars 
are  lined  with  No.  22  sheet-iron,  riveted  and  soldered,  which 
prevents  any  break  or  swelling  of  the  wood-work  of  the  car. 
This  lining  is  rubbed  over  occasionally  with  tallow,  which 
prevents  rusting,  and  the  mush  from  sticking  to  it,  or,  bet- 
ter still,  if  the  lining  of  the  car  is  made  of  galvanized  iron, 
which  will  not  rust  for  a  long  time. 

In  the  center  of  the  feeding  floor  should  be  placed  a  pair 
of  eight-ton  platform  scales,  for  the  purpose  of  weighing 
any  pen  of  hogs  at  will.  A  movable  railing  placed  across 
the  floor  at  each  end  of  the  scales,  with  a  small  gate  in  one 
to  let  the  hogs  in,  and  the  hogs  from  any  pen  maybe  driven 
upon  the  scales  in  two  minutes,  without  disturbing  the 
rest. 

This  is  a  general  sketch  of  the  swine-house  proper.  The 
corn-cribs  and  the  engine-house  will  be  at  one  end,  and  may 
be  made  as  roomy  and  convenient  as  the  feeder  chooses. 
The  breeding-pens  may  be  added  to  the  end  opposite  the 
corn-cribs  and  engine-house  ;  but  this  same  feeding  floor 
should  run  through  all,  so  that  the  car  can  reach  every  pen. 
It  is  intended  that  there  shall  be  no  freezing  in  this  house  ; 
and,  with  the  use  of  the  engine,  water  is  easily  pumped  into 
an  elevated  reservoir,  from  which  it  may  be  run  to  any  part 


484  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

for  any  purpose.  Ventilation  is  made  so  complete,  that 
fresh  air  is  constantly  admitted  and  vitiated  air  carried  off. 
This  engine  furnishes  power  for  every  purpose  required  ; 
and  when  the  cost  is  divided  by  the  number  of  hogs  fed,  it  is 
so  trivial  as  hardly  to  be  worth  considering.  It  is  intended 
that  200  hogs  shall  be  constantly  fattening,  and  their 
places  supplied  by  others  as  fast  as  sold.  Hog-feeding  may 
thus  be  reduced  to  a  system  as  perfect  as  that  of  cotton- 
spinning. 

No  Storing  Period. 

We  have  treated,  in  a  general  way,  of  all  its  various 
stages  of  growth  to  the  time  of  the  final  fattening  period ; 
and  it  has  been  plain,  from  our  illustrations,  that  we  believe 
in  a  growing  period  commencing  with  the  first  day  of  its 
life,  and  continuing  till  the  last,  and  that  there  should  be 
no  stand-still  period  in  any  correct  system  of  feeding.  But 
the  wmteY-storing  system  has  taken  such  a  deep  root  in  the 
minds  of  pig-raisers  that  Dr.  Andrew  McFarland,  a  former 
superintendent  of  the  Insane  Asylum  at  Jacksonville,  111., 
conceived  the  idea  of  placing  the  pig  in  compulsory  hiber- 
nation in  winter,  so  as  to  have  him  ready  for  rapid  growth 
the  following  summer.  This,  he  thinks,  a  most  important 
object  to  secure  ;  and  if  the  storing  system  is  necessary,  we 
cannot  dispute  his  conclusion.  He  cites  the  case  of  a  fat 
hog  that  was  accidentally  buried  under  a  straw-stack,  in  the 
fall,  where  it  remained  several  months,  and  on  discovery, 
came  out  alive  and  apparently  well,  having  lost  little  flesh,* 
;ind  another  case  of  a  hog,  buried  under  a  snow-drift,  re- 
maining some  eleven  weeks,  coming  out  alive,  though  gaunt 
and  lean,  having  lost  its  fat  in  keeping  up  animal  heat. 
From  these  and  other  instances,  he  supposes  it  quite  possi- 
ble to  devise  a  system  of  hibernating  the  pig  much  cheaper 
than  feeding  it.  He  would  "select  a  dry  spot,  and  place 
a  young  hog,  in  good  flesh,  under  an  inverted  box,  contain- 
ing 80  to  100  cubic  feet  of  free  air — the  box  to  be  perfo- 


THE    PIG.  485 

rated  with  holes,  or  made  of  lattice  work— then  four  feet  of 
well-packed  straw  on  the  sides,  running  to  a  cone  above, 
placing  the  hog  in  this  position  at  evening."  We  give  this 
ingenious  conception  of  the  doctor's  because  it  may  be  re- 
garded as  much  cheaper,  and  quite  as  merciful,  as  the  sys- 
tem that  some  feeders  adopt  during  the  winter.  But  if  the 
hog  could  be  safely  hibernated,  it  would  scarcely  be  profit- 
able, when  it  is  considered  that  those  animals  that  hiber- 
nate often  come  out  with  a  loss  of  40  per  cent,  in  weight ; 
and  just  think  of  the  amount  of  food  required  to  bring  them 
back  into  a  thrifty  state  !  But  that  is  not  much  worse  than 
the  folly  of  throwing  away  four  to  six  months'  food  to  keep 
pigs  alive  without  growth.  Still,  as  the  general  system 
adopted  supposes  a  period  when  a  special  effort  is  made  to 
ripen  the  pig  for  market,  we  propose  to  treat  of  this. 

Fattening  Period. 

A  very  large  proportion  of  farmers  keep  their  pigs 
through  the  summer  on  poor  pasture  and  a  little  refuse 
from  the  kitchen,  postponing  till  cold  weather  the  fatten- 
ing. This  is,  of  course,  a  very  bad  plan,  unless  the  feeder 
has  a  warm  house  in  which  to  feed  them,  and  then  quite 
indefensible,  as  every  feeder  should  make  the  most  of  the 
warm  season  for  fattening,  for  it  will  take  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  food  to  keep  them  warm — much  larger  than  is 
generally  supposed.  We  desire  to  make  this  matter  plain, 
and  will  give  some  experiments  that  have  been  made  to 
test  it. 

Mr.  Joseph  Sullivan t,  in  his  pamphlet,  gives  an  experi- 
ment, tried  at  Duncan's  Falls,  Ohio,  in  1859,  where  a  large 
lot  of  hogs  were  weighed,  on  the  10th  of  September,  and 
turned  into  a  forty-acre  corn-field,  where  they  remained 
till  October  23d.  Having  eaten  down  the  field,  they  were 
again  weighed,  and  found  to  have  gained  16,000  pounds; 
or  ten  pounds  per  bushel  of  corn,  estimating  the  yield  at 


486  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

40  bushels  per  acre.  He  then  selected  from  the  lot  100 
hogs,  averaging  200  pounds  each,  placed  them  in  large 
covered  pens,  with  plank  floors  and  troughs,  and  fed  them 
upon  corn-meal,  ground  in  the  ear,  and  well  steamed.  At 
the  end  of  a  week  they  were  weighed,  and  found  to  have 
gained  20  pounds  for  each  70  pounds  of  cob-meal — the 
weather  being  warm  for  the  season.  The  first  week  in  No- 
vember (the  weather  being  much  colder)  these  hogs  gained 
only  15  pounds  to  the  70  pounds  of  steamed  meal ;  the  third 
week  of  the  same  month  (the  weather  being  still  colder) 
they  gained  only  10  pounds  per  bushel,  and  the  next  week 
(it  getting  still  colder)  they  only  gained  6H  pounds  per 
bushel.  This  lot  was  then  sold  ;  and  he  selected  another 
and  fed  in  December.  The  weather  being  about  the  same 
as  in  November,  they  gained  6M  pounds  per  bushel.  This 
lot  was  weighed  again  the  middle  of  January,  and  the  corn 
fed  during  a  week  only  increased  their  weight  IM  pounds 
per  bushel — the  thermometer  being  down  to  zero.  Anotlier 
week,  on  being  weighed,  they  just  held  their  own ;  the  tem- 
perature being  from  one  to  ten  below  zero. 

This  experiment  is  a  fair  representation  of  the  effect  of 
temperature  upon  the  thrift  of  fattening  hogs.  When  very 
cold,  the  hog  can  only  eat  enough  to  keep  up  animal  heat, 
and  the  food,  producing  no  gain,  is  thrown  away.  It  must 
thus  be  seen  that  postponing  the  fattening  till  winter  is  very 
bad  economy,  and  unless  the  swine-house  can  be  kept  at  a 
temperature  of  about  60°  there  can  be  no  profit  in  winter- 
feeding.  This  it  is  not  difficult  to  do  ;  and  no  large  feeder 
can  i^roperly  excuse  himself  on  the  ground  of  cost  or  econ- 
omy, for  his  losses  from  cold  in  a  single  winter  would  build 
and  equip  a  swine-house  in  which  such  a  temperature  could 
easily  be  maintained. 

Selecting  Pigs  for  Fattening. 

Many  of  our  Western  readers  buy  the  pigs  they  feed,  in- 
stead of  raising  them,  which  may  be  necessary  in  some 


THE   PIG.  487 

cases,  but  cannot  be  recommended  as  a  system.  The  feeder 
gets  his  profit  on  a  lot  of  hogs,  purchased  for  finishing  for 
market,  from  the  increase  in  weight  and  improvement  in 
quality  that  he  expects  to  make.  He  will,  therefore,  be 
governed  by  different  considerations  in  the  purchase  of  pigs 
for  fattening  than  he  would  in  rearing  his  own  pigs.  In 
the  latter  case,  he  w^ould  find  his  profit  in  keeping  them 
growing  as  rapidly  and  constantly  as  possible.  He  would 
want  them  always  in  condition  for  slaughter;  but,  in  select- 
ing pigs  for  feeding,  he  will  look  for  a  well-developed,  rangy 
frame,  with  more  muscle  than  fat,  and  healthy,  vigorous 
condition;  and,  by  good  feeding,  he  will  expect  to  increase 
the  weight  rapidly,  and  add  to  his  profit.  But  these  lean 
hogs  were  raised  at  a  loss,  which  must  be  pocketed  by  the 
seller.  When  vigorous,  lean  hogs  are  put  up  and  well  fed, 
they  have  simply  to  fill  up  with  fat,  to  round  out  into  great 
weight.  Such  hogs  will  stand  heavy  feeding  with  clear 
corn  for  a  few  months,  and  make  very  profitable  packing 
pork. 

Philosophy  of  Cookin-g  Food. 

Our  first  inquiry  here  should  be,  what  is  the  effect  of  cook- 
ing food  ?  The  bulk  of  all  our  cereal  grains  used  as  food 
for  pigs  is  composed  of  starch ;  and  starch,  as  manufact- 
ured, or  as  found  in  the  cells  of  A'ege tables,  consists  of 
globules  or  grains,  contained  in  a  kind  of  sac,  and  in  order 
to  burst  these  grains,  heat  must  be  applied.  Payen,  on 
mixing  starch  with  water,  and  heating  to  140°  F.,  examined 
it  with  a  microscope,  and  found  only  some  of  the  smaller 
grains  had  absorbed  water  and  burst,  most  remained  still 
unaffected,  and  only  bursting  when  heated  to  from  162°  to 
212°  F.  These  experiments  have  been  often  repeated,  and 
seem  to  show,  conclusively,  that  the  heat  of  the  animal 
stomach  is  not  sufficient  to  fully  utilize  starch.  Pereira, 
one  of  the  best  writers  upon  food,  says:  ''To  render 
starchy  substances  digestible,  they  require  to  be  cooked  to 


488  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

break  or   crack   the  grain."     Raspail,  a  writer  upon  the 
chemistry  of  foods,  says  : 

"  Starch  is  not  actually  nutritive  to  man  till  it  has  been 
boiled  or  cooked.  The  heat  of  the  stomach  is  not  sufficient 
to  burst  all  the  grains  of  the  feculent  mass,  which  is  sub- 
jected to  the  rapid  action  of  the  organ ;  and  recent  experi- 
ments prove  the  advantage  that  results  from  boiling  the 
potatoes  and  grain  which  are  given  to  graminivorous  ani- 
mals for  food,  for  a  large  proportion,  when  given  whole,  in 
the  raw  state,  passes  through  the  intestine  perfectly  unaf- 
fected, as  when  swallowed." 

Every  housewife  is  familar  with  the  fact,  that  starch  will 
not  dissolve  in  cold  water.  It  follows,  then,  that  those 
grains  containing  the  largest  proportion  of  starch  will  be 
most  benefited  by  cooking,  and  these  (corn,  rye,  oats,  bar- 
ley) are  most  used  as  fattening  food  for  pigs.  Corn, 
especially,  is  considered  the  standard  fattening  food,  and 
that  contains  about  64  per  cent,  of  starch  ;  rye,  54  per  cent.; 
barley,  47  per  cent.,  and  oats  40  per  cent,  of  starch.  When 
corn-meal  is  well  cooked,  it  is  something  more  than  doubled 
in  bulk — the  bursting  of  the  grains  of  starch  causes  it  to 
swell  and  occupy  twice  its  former  space — and  some  feeder's 
have  considered  it  as  valuable,  bulk  for  bulk,  as  before 
cooking ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  its  value  is  doubled  by 
cooking.  Hon.  Geo.  Geddes,  of  New  York,  a  farmer  of 
long  experience,  says : 

*'  I  find  if  I  take  ten  bushels  of  meal  and  wet  it  in  cold 
water,  and  feed  25  hogs  with  it,  they  eat  it  well ;  but  if  I 
take  the  same  quantity  and  cook  it,  it  doubles  the  bulk,  and 
will  take  the  same  number  of  hogs  twice  as  long  to  eat  it 
up ;  and  I  think  they  fatten  twice  as  fast,  in  the  same  lengtli 
of  time.  By  cooking,  you  double  the  bulk  and  value  of  the 
meal." 

We  have  one  complete,  comparative  experiment  of  our  own 
to  offer  as  illustrating  this  point.     On  the  first  of  October, 


THE    PIG.  489 

divided  six  pigs,  of  the  same  litter,  into  two  lots  of  three 
each,  they  being  of  the  same  weight  aud  thrift — 225  pounds 
each  lot — placing  them  in  separate  pens.  Lot  No.  1  was 
fed  upon  corn-meal,  soaked  about  12  hours  in  cold  water — 
all  they  would  eat — with  a  little  early-cut  clover-hay  thrown 
into  the  pen  for  them  to  chew,  to  promote  health.  Lot  No. 
2  was  fed  corn-meal,  thoroughly  cooked,  and  fed  lukewarm, 
ad  libitum,  with  a  lock  of  clover-hay.  This  experiment 
continued  till  the  8th  of  January,  or  100  days.  Lot  1  con- 
sumed 2,111  pounds  of  meal,  ana  gained  420  pounds — 
average  140  pounds  each.  Lot  2  consumed  2,040  pounds, 
and  gained  600  pounds — average  200  pounds  each.  This 
gives  11  pounds  gain,  for  one  bushel  of  meal,  by  lot  No.  1 ; 
and  16.47  pounds  gain,  for  a  bushel  of  meal,  by  lot  2. 
Lot  1,  ate  on  an  average,  7.04  pounds  of  meal  per  day,  and 
gained  1.40  pounds.  Lot  2  ate  on  an  average,  6.80  pounds 
of  meal  per  day,  and  gained  2  pounds. 

We  have  no  doubt  the  gain  would  have  been  slightly  larger 
in  each  lot  if  the  meal  had  been  mixed  with  the  clover-hay, 
cut.  We  have  reached,  with  a  larger  lot  of  hogs,  17.20 
pounds  to  each  bushel  of  cooked  meal,  consumed,  mixed, 
before  cooking,  with  a  little  cut  clover-hay.  This  is,  how- 
ever, a  larger  average  than  can  be  counted  upon  in  any  large 
operation. 

Mr.  Joseph  Sullivant,  before  alluded  to,  who  made  a 
thorough  examination  of  all  available  statistics,  summed 
up  the  evidence  as  follows : 

"  I  conclude  that  nine  pounds  of  pork  from  a  bushel  fed 
in  the  ear,  twelve  pounds  from  raw  meal,  thirteen  and  a 
lialf  pounds  from  boiled  corn,  sixteen  and  a  half  pounds 
from  cooked  meal,  is  no  more  than  a  moderate  average 
which  the  feeder  may  expect  to  realize  from  a  bushel  of 
corn,  under  ordinary  circumstances  of  weather,  with  drv, 
warm  and  clean  feeding  pens." 

He  gives  thirteen  experiments  in  feeding  raw  corn  ;  four 


490  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

experiments  (those  of  the  Shakers  of  Lebanon,  N.  Y., 
Thomas  Edge,  Prof.  ^liles,  of  the  Michif^an  Agricultural 
College,  and  J.  B.  Lawes),  showing  that  raw  meal  will  make 
12  pounds;  five  experiments  to  show  that  boiled  corn  will 
make  13}^  pounds;  and  ten  cases  to  prove  that  boiled  meal 
will  make  16M  pounds  of  live  pork.  But  although  these 
experiments  do  prove  these  conclusions,  we  cannot  expect 
that  common  feeding  will  reach  these  averages.  All  these 
experiments  are  tried  by  more  than  ordinarily  accurate  and 
enterprising  farmers  ;  and  we  should  cut  down  the  aver- 
ages as  follows :  By  good  management,  the  general 
feeder  may  reach,  with  raw  corn,  8  pounds  ;  with  raw  meal, 
10  pounds;  with  boiled  corn,  12  pounds,  and  with  boiled 
meal,  15  pounds  of  live  pork,  per  bushel. 

There  would  not  be  so  much  difference  between  boiled 
corn  and  meal,  if  the  corn  were  boiled  long  enough,  or 
steamed  under  pressure,  so  as  to  burst  the  kernel  and  break 
all  the  starch  grains ;  but  it  is  not  generally  so  thoroughly 
cooked  as  to  effect  this.  The  skin  or  rind  of  grain  is  very 
tough,  and  intended  by  nature  to  protect  the  interior  or 
more  nutritious  part  of  the  seed.  When  this  rind  is  broken 
and  ground  to  powder,  the  action  of  heat  is  made  more 
rapid  and  effectual  in  bursting  all  the  grains  of  starch,  and 
in  rendering  it  all  digestible  by  the  ordinary  action  of  the 
animal  stomach. 

Will  it  Pay  to  Cook  for  Hogs  ? 

The  answer  to  this  question  must  depend  wholly  upon 
circumstances.  The  statement  of  experiments,  showing 
wliat  may  be  expected  from  the  effect  of  cooking,  will  en- 
able anyone  to  determine  this  question  for  himself.  It  will 
not  pay  to  cook  for  a  small  number  of  pigs,  because  the 
cost  of  labor,  fuel  and  apparatus  will  be  more  than  the  gain. 
It  will  cost  as  much  labor  to  cook  for  ten  pigs,  with  a  small 
apparatus,  as  for  fifty  to  one  hundred  with  such  an  appara- 


/RE    PIft.  491 

tus  as  we  described  a  few  pages  back.  Cooking  on  a  small 
scale,  will  only  be  done  where  the  farmer  has  a  warm  pen, 
and  does  his  fattening  in  winter,  when  he  has  little  else  to 
do.  If  ten  pigs  are  fed  100  days  upon  seven  pounds  of 
corn-meal  each,  per  day — whole  amount,  7,000  pounds,  or 
125  bushels — and  if  we  suppose  that  cooking  will  give  five 
pounds  more  to  the  bushel,  or  625  pounds  of  live  pork,  and 
this  worth  five  cents  per  pound,  the  feeder  will  receive 
$31.25  for  the  expense  of  cooking.  It  is  for  the  farmer  to 
determine  whether  he  could  afford  to  perform  this  labor  for 
313=^  cents  per  day.  But  if  he  has  100  hogs  to  feed,  he  will 
receive  $312.50  for  the  100  days,  or  $3.12K  per  day.  It  is 
easy  to  see  that  the  latter  will  pay. 

In  our  plan  of  cooking,  we  exclude  all  attempts  to  feed 
cooked  food  in  troughs  in  the  open  air  in  cold  weather. 
Nothing  but  failure  can  be  expected  of  such  attempts. 
The  food  will  be  hot  or  frozen.  Great  changes  in  the  tem- 
perature of  the  food  is  not  relished,  and  food  in  a  semi- 
liquid  state  is  to  be  avoided  when  the  temperature  is  much 
below  60°  F.  If  hogs  are  to  be  fed  in  the  open  air,  in 
winter,  it  should  be  with  dry  food.  Corn,  then,  will  do  best 
in  its  natural  state  ;  but  if  the  weather  is  cold,  as  we  have 
seen,  it  will  require  liberal  feeding  to  produce  any  gain. 

In  rearing  young  pigs  in  winter,  some  arrangement  for 
cooking  will  Ije  quite  essential  to  rapid  growth.  In  pre- 
paring slops  for  the  brood  sows,  to  cause  a  generous  flow  of 
milk,  cooking  will  be  required.  We  quite  agree  with  Dr. 
Stetson,  on  page  478,  upon  this  point.  Facility  for  cook- 
ing, will  enable  the  feeder  always  to  give  a  greater  variety 
in  the  diet  of  young,  as  well  as  fattening  hogs.  In  cook- 
ing, everything  may  be  used  to  advantage.  Pumpkins, 
potatoes,  carrots,  beets,  turnips,  cabbages,  short-cut  clover, 
oil-meal,  wheat- middlings — each  or  all  may  be  cooked  with 
the  corn  or  corn-meal,  making  a  savory  mess,  greatly 
relished  by  pigs  or  fattening  hogs.     As  in  the  near  future. 


492  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

little  corn  will  be  sold,  even  in  the  West,  except  in  the 
form  of  pork,  beef  or  mutton,  it  is  reasonable  to  expect 
that  the  economical  preparation  of  food  will  be  more  care- 
fully studied  and  accurately  tested  in  large  experiments, 
and  when  this  shall  occur,  we  have  no  doubt  that  the 
thorough  cooking  of  the  food  of  hogs  will  be  established  as 
an  economy. 


REMEDIES   IX   DISEASE.  493 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

WATER   REMEDIES. 

We  may  be  expected  to  have  something  upon  the  treat- 
ment of  diseases  of  stock.  But  we  must  confess  at  the  be- 
ginning that  our  confidence  is  very  slight  in  the  ordinary 
veterinary  remedies,  aside  from  surgical  remedies,  which 
should  be  based  upon  true  science.  The  attempt  to  make 
a  specific  prescription  for  a  particular  disease  was  long  ago 
called,  by  a  medical  man,  '^  a  blow  in  the  dark."  Young 
practitioners  believe  in  a  large  number  of  specifics — those 
of  long  experience  are  not  certain  of  any.  The  stock-feeder 
should  place  his  faith  in  prevention.  "  An  ounce  of  pre- 
vention is  worth  a  pound  of  cure." 

The  author  wrote  the  following  observations  some  fifteen 
years  ago  upon  the 

Uses  of  Water  in-  the  Diseases  of  Cattle, 

and  he  regards  them  as  yet  practically  sound  : 

As  bleeding,  blistering,  and  all  violent  remedies  for  the 
human  subject  goes  gradually  out  of  date,  so  the  milder 
treatment  and  greater  trust  in  nature  ought  to  be  applied 
even  to  our  animals.  But  still,  all  treatises  yet  extant  for 
the  guidance  of  the  herdsman,  after  describing  the  disease, 
turn  only  to  the  medical  vocabulary  for  relief;  and  the  poor 
animal  must  be  bled,  purged,  cauterized  and  irritated,  in- 
stead of  being  soothed,  quieted,  assisted. 

In  garget,  or  swollen  udder,  for  instance,  bleeding  or  a 
purgative  is  first  recommended.       Let  us  examine  the  case. 


494  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

The  udder  has  become  inflamed,  probably  the  teats  are 
swollen,  the  milk  coagulated,  with  more  or  less  fever.  Now, 
the  prescription  says,  bleed,  purge  with  epsom  salts,  ginger, 
nitrate  of  potassa,  molasses,  etc.  The  operation  of  this  pur- 
gative is  to  irritate  the  stomach,  alimentary  canal  and  intes- 
tines, and,  by  sympathy,  other  parts  of  the  system,  of  neces- 
sity increasing,  at  first,  the  fever  and  irritation,  which  it  is 
intended  to  allay.  All  purgative  medicines  operate  by  irri- 
tation, and  not  as  a  solvent.  It  is  a  direct  attack  upon  the 
vital  functions,  which,  in  self-defense,  pour  upon  it  a 
watery  secretion  from  the  mucus  membrane  of  the  stomach 
and  bowels,  to  dilute  it  and  render  it  less  harmful,  while  it 
is  conducted  along  the  alimentary  canal  by  peristalic  motion, 
and  expelled  from  the  bowels — called  a  cathartic,  because 
nature  hicks  it  out  as  an  intruder,  an  enemy,  yet  this  is 
called  science  ! 

But,  says  the  conservative,  if  this  is  at  antipodes  with  Na- 
ture, what  shall  we  do  to  harmonize  with  and  assist  Nature 
to  recover  her  balance  ?     Let  us  see  : 

The  greater  part  of  the  animal  body  is  composed  of  water. 
Three-fourths  of  the  mass  of  the  blood,  and  nine-tenths  of 
the  fluid  secretions  are  water.  All  nutrient  matters  are  con- 
veyed in  water  to  the  blood,  and  through  it  to  all  parts  of 
the  system.  Water  is  the  only  solventfor  the  alimentary  ex- 
crementitious  matter,  and  through  which  the  wastes  or  effete 
matters  are  expelled  by  the  excretory  organs.  Water  can  cir- 
culate through  all  the  tissues  of  the  body  without  producing 
irritation  or  injury.  In  short,  water  is  in  perfect  accord 
with  the  whole  animal  system. 

Fever  and  inflammation  are  caused  by  some  obstruction 
in  the  circulation  of  the  system,  sometimes  by  a  sudden  cold 
which  closes  the  pores  of  tlie  skin,  and  prevents  the  proper 
excretions.  In  high  fever,  or  inflammation,  it  has  been  said, 
'*  blood  is  on  fire  ;  extinguish  the  flame  and  the  patient  will 
be  well." 


WATER   REMEDIES.  495 

What  more  is  there  necessary  than  to  cool  off  the  part,  to 
relieve  the  system  of  this  unnatural  heat  ?  Water  is  the 
most  universal  cooling  agent  in  nature,  is  always  at  hand, 
and  easily  applied.  Everything  in  nature  seeks  an  equi- 
librium. Apply  cold  to  the  surface  of  the  skin,  and  the  hot 
blood  rushes  there  to  resist  it,  and  to  equalize  the  heat. 
The  tendency  to  congestion  of  the  internal  organs  in  fevers 
is  relieved  by  an  application  of  cold  to  the  surface.  Water 
not  only  cools  the  skin,  but  opens  the  pores  and  promotes  its 
excretions,  and  when  we  reflect  upon  the  large  amount  of 
matter  that  passes  off  through  the  pores  of  the  skin,  we  see 
the  importance  of  keeping  it  in  a  clean,  healthy  state. 

Garget. 

In  case  of  the  garget,  the  swollen  udder  only  requires  to 
be  cooled  and  cleansed,  and  to  be  kept  cool  for  a  short  time, 
to  be  restored  to  its  originally  healthy  condition. 

Water  furnishes  just  the  means  for  this  purpose.  With- 
out exciting  and  irritating  the  whole  system  of  the  cow, 
which  is  already  too  much  excited,  water  will  quiet  and 
soothe  the  inflammation,  cool  and  soften  the  hot,  dry  skin  of 
the  udder,  and  soon  give  ease  and  comfort  to  the  cow.  But 
how  shall  the  water  be  applied  to  accomplish  this  ? 

Washing  and  sponging  the  bag  with  water  will  not  an- 
swer the  purpose,  unless  unremittingly  applied,  which  would 
require  a  more  faithful  attendant  than  is  generally  found. 
But  if  you  take  an  oil-cloth  or  india-rubber  cloth  bag,  made 
to  fit  the  cow's  udder,  or  nearly  so,  coming  up  to  the  body, 
flaring  at  the  top,  held  up  by  a  strap  over  the  back,  then 
filled  with  soft  water  of  moderate  temperature,  say  65'',  you 
will  have  an  apparatus  that  will  require  very  little  attention. 
This  can  be  applied  by  anybody,  and  with  much  less  trouble 
than  a  purgative  can  be  given.  This  mild  water  will  absorb 
gradually  the  heat  from  the  udder  and  not  cause  any  shock 
to  the  system,  or  much  determination  of  blood  to  the  part. 


496  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

Very  cold  water  should  not  be  used,  unless  there  is  much 
inflammation  in  the  udder,  as  it  will  cause  a  great  determi- 
nation to  the  part  affected.  The  water  must  be  changed  as 
often  as  it  gets  warm.  And  as  there  is  generally  more  or 
less  disturbance  of  the  whole  system,  and  an  inclina- 
tion to  constipation,  give  the  cow  an  injection  of  about 
three  pints  of  soft  blood-warm  water — simple  water,  no 
medication  in  it.  This  will  produce  a  movement  of 
the  bowels  without  any  irritation,  as  the  water  liqui- 
fies or  dissolves  the  hard  faeces  and  cools  off  the 
intestines  and  bowels.  If  the  first  injection  does  not 
operate  in  an  hour  or  so,  it  proves  that  there  is  much  in- 
ternal heat,  that  the  water  has  been  absorbed,  and  another 
should  be  given.  These  injections  are  perfectly  harmless, 
and  can  certainly  be  given  as  easily  as  medicated  ones ;  they 
may  always  take  the  place  of  the  purgative,  and  will  answer 
a  much  better  purpose.  When  the  application  is  com- 
pleted, let  the  udder  be  slightly  chafed  with  a  dry  cloth, 
and  rubbed  with  a  little  lard.  We  have  several  times  made 
this  application  and  always  with  most  gratifying  success, 
seldom  requiring  more  than  a  few  hours. 

Puerperal  or  Milk  Fever. 

It  may  be  thought  that  this  disease  offers  insuperable  ob- 
stacles to  the  use  of  water;  that  as  the  cow  in  many  cases 
cannot  stand,  the  remedy  cannot  be  applied.  AYe  admit 
that  this  disease,  as  heretofore  treated,  has  been  alarming 
and  difficult  to  the  herdsman  ;  that,  as  it  sometimes  comes 
on  so  suddenly,  runs  its  course  so  rapidly,  and  is  drugged 
so  lustily,  if  not  wisely,  it  leaves  his  mind  in  confusion 
and  uncertainty.  But  there  is  no  real  diJBQculty  in  using 
water  in  this  case.  The  true  method  is  to  treat  cows  be- 
fore and  at  calving,  so  that  this  crisis  in  the  disease  will  not 
occur.  All  stimulating  food  should  be  avoided  and  the  ani- 
mal kept  where  she  may  have  uniform  warmth  and  air,  and. 


WATER   REMEDIES.  497 

as  in  most  cases,  the  udder  is  swollen  and  hot,  make  appli- 
cation recommended  for  garget ;  give  copious  injections 
of  blood-warm  water,  which  will  relieve  the  bowels  and  in- 
testines ;  then  take  matting  or  old  carpeting,  wide  enough 
to  reach  from  udder  to  foreleg,  and  long  enough  to  reach 
around  her,  put  it  under  her  and  bring  it  together  over  the 
back,  then  pour  slightly  cool  water  between  the  blanket  and 
her  side,  thus  wetting  her  over  the  principal  seat  of  fever  or 
inflammation,  producing  a  fomentation  and  gradual  cool- 
ing of  the  whole  surface,  modifying  her  fever  and  generally 
producing  relief  at  once.  It  is  well  to  wet  and  rub  gently 
her  back,  hips  and  flanks.  As  often  as  this  blanket  begins 
to  dry  water  should  be  poured  in  as  before,  until  the  fever 
passes  away,  when  the  blanket  may  be  taken  oif  and  the 
cow  gently  chafed  with  a  dry  cloth  until  the  hair  is  dry. 
Moderately  cool  water  should  be  given  her  to  drink,  but  no 
effort  made  to  stimulate  her  appetite,  which  will  return 
when  Nature  calls  for  food.  Let  it  ever  be  remembered 
that  this  treatment  and  all  treatment  of  sick  animals  should 
be  performed  in  the  gentlest  manner.  Let  roughness  and 
cruelty  be  monopolized  by  the  butcher,  and  never  used  by 
the  herdsman. 

Milk  fever  is  apt  to  be  accompanied  by  more  or  less  of 
brain  fever,  and  in  this  case,  what  is  done  must  be  done 
quickly,  and  the  best  application  is  a  drench  of  very  cold 
water  (ice  water),  delivered  between  the  horns  and  on  the 
forehead.  This  should  be  repeated  several  times,  if  necessary. 
It  should  not  be  continued  till  chills  are  produced.  But  when 
the  disease  has  reached  the  brain,  veterinarians  do  not  ac- 
knowledge any  probability  of  cure,  yet  the  author  has  known 
of  several  cases  recovering  after  the  use  of  the  cold  drench. 
It  is  not  very  different  treatment  from  that  of  brain  fever 
in  the  human  subject — pounded  ice  between  two  linen 
cloths  applied  to  the  brain.  When  the  drench  is  applied 
the  other  applications  must  also  be  made. 


498  FEEDING   AKIMALS. 

If  this  fever  should  occur  in  cold  weather,  a  dry  blanket 
may  be  put  over  the  wet  one,  to  keep  the  heat  from  passing 
off  too  rapidly,  but  if  the  fever  should  be  high  there  will 
be  no  danger  of  this.    « 

Since  writing  the  foregoing,  several  experienced  dairy- 
men have  reported  to  us  in  confirmation  of  our  treatment 
foi'  milk  fever,  that  finding  a  cov\r  in  the  worst  stages 
of  this  fever,  and  quite  unable  to  stand,  they  caused 
her  to  be  frequently  and  thoroughly  washed,  and  covered 
with  a  blanket  to  keep  the  evaporation  from  being  too  rapid 
— that  "it  worked  to  a  charm,"  as  they  phrased  it,  the  cow 
soon  recovering  her  usual  strength  and  milk. 

The  reader  will  readily  see  how  this  treatment  may  be  ap- 
plied to  other  fevers  and  inflammations  ;  in  what  is  called 
common  or  simiole  fever,  the  same  application  should  be 
made.  In  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  a  similar  application 
may  be  made  to  the  chest,  and  in  all  cases  of  fevers  and  in- 
flammation, injections  should  be  freely  used  ;  they  answer 
iu  all  cases  much  better  than  the  drug  purgative. 

In  diarrhoea,  the  injection  is  valuable  where  a  change  of 
food  is  not  sufficient  to  correct  it,  as  it  cools  off  the  bowels 
and  intestines,  allays  irritation,  and  enables  Nature  to 
resume  her  proper  functions. 

Water  Treatment  for  Horses. 

Wounds,  Bruises,  SiJrains,  etc. — The  best  surgeons  now 
regard  water  as  an  important  auxiliary  in  treating  wounds. 
Lavements,  pourings,  wet  compresses,  etc.,  are  used  for  the 
human  subject ;  and  water  answers  equally  well  for  animals. 

Simple  cut  ivounds,  when  cleansed  and  dressed  with  water, 
usually  heal  without  suppuration,  especially,  if  the  blood  be 
in  a  healthy  state.  There  being  a  tendency  in  all  wounds 
to  fever  and  inflammation,  water  dressing,  in  the  form  of 
wet  bandages,  keep  down  the  unnatural  heat,  and  allow 
Nature  to  go  on  with  the  healing  process.     The  lips  of  the 


WATER   REMEDIES.  499 

wound  may,  generally,  be  held  together  with  adhesive 
straps,  and  the  water  application  put  over.  The  most  dan- 
gerous wounds,  near  some  vital  part,  are  frequently  healed 
with  the  aid  of  water  to  keep  down  the  inflammation.  We 
remember  a  fine  mare  that  stepped  on  a  hoe,  the  handle  of 
which  had  been  split,  leaving  a  sharp  end,  and  throwing 
the  handle  up  under  her  belly,  caused  a  deep,  ugly  wound, 
and  so  lacerating  the  bowels,  that,  being  in  August,  it  was 
thought  almost  useless  to  attempt  saving  her.  But  by 
dressing  the  wound  constantly  with  water,  the  flies  were 
kept  out,  inflammation  prevented,  and  the  wound  healed  in 
two  months,  leaving  the  animal  as  valuable  as  before.  Not 
long  ago  we  had  a  mare  that  accidentally  struck  a  nail  deep 
into  her  foot,  and  being  idle  in  the  stable  at  the  time,  it 
was  not  discovered  till  the  foot  became  much  swollen ;  and 
when  the  blacksmith  took  ofl"  the  shoe,  the  foot  was  in  such 
an  inflamed  condition,  that  he  thought  nothing  could  pre- 
vent gangrene  and  loss  of  her  foot.  But  a  shallow  tub  was 
put  into  her  stall,  filled  with  water,  and  the  foot  placed  in 
it.  So  much  did  this  relieve  the  pain,  that  when  the  water 
was  changed,  the  animal  would,  voluntarily,  place  her  foot 
in  it.  The  inflammation  was  soon  reduced,  and  the  foot 
became  sound. 

Bniises  and  sjorains  are  most  aptly  treated  with  water, 
as  they  are  liable  to  be  followed  by  protracted  inflammation. 
The  parts  should  be  immersed  in,  or  poured  with  cold  water, 
and  then  kept  bandaged  with  water,  often  changed,  till  the 
inflammatory  action  is  passed. 

Sprained  An^kle. 

We  have  seen  the  most  remarkable  eff'ect  of  rubbing  with 
water,  followed  by  a  water  bandage,  which  was  changed 
twice  per  day,  upon  the  ankle  of  a  horse  whose  foot  was 
caught  in  a  tread  power,  and  doubled  over  so  badly,  that 
parties  who  saw  the  accident  thought  it  very  improbable 


500  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

that  the  horse  should  be  able  to  work  again  in  two  months. 
But  by  rubbing  the  ankle  in  water  for  one  hour,  and  then 
bandaging  it  in  water  for  three  days,  he  went  to  work  again 
on  the  fourth  day  as  if  nothing  had  injured  him. 

A  few  months  ago  a  friend  of  ours  had  a  wiry,  tough 
little  mare  who  had  been  growing  lame  from  a  sprained 
ankle  for  several  months,  and  he  had  about  despaired  of 
much  improvement.  We  advised  him  to  place  a  heavy 
water  bandage  on  the  ankle  of  the  little  mare  when  brought 
in  towards  evening.  He  did  so,  and  in  a  few  days  she  was 
very  much  improved,  and  in  three  weeks  she  was  well. 

Treatment  for  Colic. 

The  best  treatment  for  this  ailment  of  horses  is  the  pre- 
ventive treatment  in  feeding.  We  do  not  think  a  horse 
ever  had  the  colic  without  error  in  feeding  too  concentrated 
food,  or,  perhaps,  driving  rapidly  on  a  full  stomach.  But 
these  errors  will  more  or  less  occur,  and  then  the 
remedy. 

It  is  always  caused  by  indigestion  and  fever.  The  best 
application  is,  first  rubbing  the  abdomen  and  chest  witk 
cold  water,  and  then  placing  a  heavy  woollen  blanket 
under  the  belly  and  bringing  the  ends  up  over  the  back, 
when  cool  water  can  be  poured  in  between  the  blanket 
and  skin,  keeping  the  body  wet  just  back  of  the  foreleg. 
This  will  usually  give  relief  in  a  few  minutes.  The  author 
has  seen  a  number  of  horses  with  colic  led  into  a  creek,  in 
warm  weather,  when  the  horse  would  immediately  lay  down 
in  the  water  and  get  relief  in  that  way.  We  have  never 
seen  a  horse  with  colic  that  would  not  make  the  application 
himself  when  given  an  opportunity.  This  application  can 
be  made  in  a  warm  stable  in  winter,  but  in  that  case  the 
water  should  not  be  below  60°.  If  the  horse  is  constipated 
injections  of  soft  water  should  be  used. 


remedies  for  diseases.  501 

Food  Medicin-es. 

Stock-feeders  have  not  studied  sufficiently  the  effect  of 
foods  upon  animal  ailments.  The  condition  of  the  system 
can  be  completely  controlled  by  food.  There  are  laxative 
foods  and  constipating  foods  and  food  with  other  remedial 
qualities.  A  laxative  food  is  anti-febrile;  in  fact,  a  proper 
understanding  of  the  management  of  laxative  food  will 
prevent  diseases.  Fevers  often  arise  from  a  too  free  and 
long  use  of  a  constipating  food. 

A  close  observer  can  tell  at  once  what  variation  in  food 
may  be  required  to  establish  a  healthy  condition  in  a  horse; 
that  is,  in  horses  constantly  under  his  eye.  But  he  must 
have  studied  the  effect  of  foods  and  rely  upon  them,  instead 
of  the  medical  vocabulary.  A  horse  should  never  be  al- 
lowed to  get  into  a  condition  in  which  food  will  not  recover 
him.  Flax-seed  is,  perhaps,  the  most  convenient  laxative 
food.  Boiled  flax-seed  will  take  effect  quite  rapidly,  and 
no  veterinarian  will  say  that  this  laxative  is  not  milder,  and 
to  be  preferred,  where  it  will  operate,  to  a  medical  laxative. 
Peas  are  slightly  constipating,  beans  more  so,  finished 
middlings  a  little  binding,  and  an  occasional  half  pint  of 
boiled  flax-seed  mixed  in  will  keep  the  proper  balance. 


502  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


APPENDIX. 

AMERICAN   ENSILAGE   IN   ENGLAND. 

There  Imving  been  many  questions  raised  in  reference 
to  the  wholesomeness  of  ensilage  as  a  food,  especially  for 
milk,  we  regarded  the  following  correspondence  and 
analysis  of  maize  and  rye  ensilage  by  Dr.  Voelcker,  of 
England,  as  important  enough  to  be  added  in  an  appendix, 
with  other  recent  statements  in  this  country.  Mr.  Edward 
Atkinson,  of  Boston,  who  has  taken  much  interest  in  the 
development  of  this  system  of  ensilage  in  New  England,  at 
the  instance  of  an  English  friend,  sent  maize  ensilage  and 
rye  ensilage  to  Prof.  Yoelcker  for  analysis  and  experiment. 
The  following  is  Mr.  Atkinson's  letter  to  the  American 
Cultivator,  accompanying  the  report  and  analysis  of  Dr. 
Voelcker  : 

Important  Statements  by  Prof.  Augustus  Voelcker. 

An  English  friend  of  mine,  having  become  greatly  interested  in 
the  subject  of  ensilage,  and  having  seen  only  samples  of  French  fod- 
der, carried  to  England  in  bottles,  I  suggested  sending  to  him  two 
casks,  one  of  Yankee  corn  fodder,  the  other  of  rye;  upon  his  assent 
thereto,  the  two  casks  were  forwarded  to  Prof.  Voelcker,  the  leading 
agricultural  chemist  of  England,  by  whom  they  have  been  analyzed, 
and  whose  report  is  inclosed  herewith.  I  have  been  informed  that 
Prof.  Voelcker  had  previously  been  very  skeptical  in  regard  to  the 
value  of  this  method  of  saving  green  crops.  ■ 

It  may  interest  your  readers  to  know  that  I  measured  off  half  an 
acre  of  good  land  and  planted  it  in  the  autumn  with  winter  rye 
which  I  reaped  a  little  too  late,  when  the  straw  had  hardened,  about 
the  middle  of  June  of  last  year.  I  then  planted  Southern  corn,  the 
growth  of  which  was  checked  considerably  by  the  drought,  but  which 


AMERICAN   ENSILAGE.  603 

reached  an  average  height  of  ten  feet,  and  which  was  cut  in  Septem- 
ber. I  computed  the  total  of  the  two  crops  at  twenty  tons,  and  I 
think  it  would  have  been  four  or  five  tons  more  except  for  the 
drought,  I  shall  carry  my  two  cows  from  fall  feed  to  summer  pas- 
ture, with  a  considerable  quantity  left  over. 

The  fact  that  this  fodder  could  be  taken  from  the  pits,  packed  in 
casks  and  sent  to  England  in  good  condition,  is  suggestive — first,  as 
to  the  feeding  of  live  cattle  in  crossing  the  sea.  Would  not  good 
corn  fodder,  packed  in  casks,  be  better  than  hay  and  more  suitable, 
bulk  for  bulk  V 

Second,  may  not  persons  who  live  in  city  or  village  raise  fodder  at 
some  distance,  permit  it  to  wither  on  the  field,  so  as  to  lose  its  elas- 
ticity, and  then  pack  it  in  flour  barrels  or  sugar  barrels,  using  a  lever 
to  press  it,  to  be  brought  in  from  the  farm  to  the  city  or  village,  as 
needed  for  the  family  cow  ? 

I  am  well  satisfied  that  four  cows  can  be  maintained  on  an  acre  of 
g«od  land  for  twelve  months,  if  they  are  fed  with  a  small  ration  of 
cotton-seed  meal  in  addition  to  the  ensilage,  and  the  manure  is  all 
restored  to  the  land.  It  would,  perhaps,  be  more  prudent  to  call  the 
ratio  three  cows  to  an  acre  of  good  land  for  twelve  months. 

In  another  aspect  this  matter  of  saving  green  crops  for  winter  fod- 
der may  greatly  affect  the  prosperity  of  New  England  farmers.  If 
I  have  been  correctly  informed,  one  of  the  obstacles  to  the  raising  of 
long-wooled  sheep  of  the  finer  sorts  with  entire  success,  in  Vermont 
and  elsewhere  in  the  North,  has  been  the  effect  upon  the  staple,  at 
about  the  middle  of  its  growth,  of  the  change  in  the  habit  of  the 
sheep  when  transferred  from  the  open  pasture  to  the  barn,  coupled 
with  the  entire  change  in  the  quality  and  kind  of  food  thereafter 
given. 

It  has  been  stated  to  me — whether  it  is  true  or  not  I  do  not  know 
— that  during  the  period  when  the  sheep  are  becoming  accustomed 
to  the  changed  conditions,  a  short  bit  of  weak  staple  is  formed, 
where  the  fibre  breaks  when  it  goes  into  the  combing  machine  at  the 
factory,  thereby  greatly  increasing  the  proportion  of  noils  and  waste. 
Now  there  is  no  condensed  food  upon  which  sheep  thrive  better  than 
cotton-seed  meal,  and  cotton-seed  meal  is  one  of  the  substances  most 
frequently  fed  in  connection  with  ensilage. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  some  Vermont  farmer  will  try  the  experi- 
ment of  feeding  sheep  with  ensilage  and  cotton-seed  meal,  if  it  has 
not  already  been  tried,  graduating  the  change  from  the  open  field  to 
the  barn  in  such  measure  as  not  to  affect  the  condition  of  the  animal 


504  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

in  the  process.  May  it  not  thus  oe  possible,  not  only  to  increase  the 
quantity  of  wool  in  very  great  measure,  but  also  to  improve  the 
quality  at  the  same  time  ? 

May  not  ensilage  extend  the  period  of  feeding  upon  succulent  food 
throughout  the  year,  and  thus  assure  the  production  of  fine,  lon^- 
stapled  wool  of  uniform  quality  ?  On  the  other  hand,  the  rich  ma- 
nure  of  sheep  fed  in  part  upon  cotton-seed  meal  will  keep  the  corn 
laud  devoted  to  the  ensilage  crop  in  full  heart. 

Boston,  Mass.  Edward  Atkinson. 


Dr.  Voelcker's  Report. 

Analytical  Laboratory, 

11    Salisbury   Square,    Fleet   Street, 

London,  *E.  C,  March  10,  1883. 

Dear  Sir  :  The  maize  ensilage  from  Boston  reached  me  in  a  per- 
fectly sound  condition.  The  r^-e  ensilage  was  also  sound,  but  here 
and  there  I  found  a  few  bits  which  were  slightly  mouldy.  On 
exposure  to  the  air  the  maize  ensilage  kept  much  freer  from  white 
mould  than  the  rye  ensilage.  Both  were  decidedly  acid,  the  maize 
ensilage  much  more  so  than  the  rye  ensilage. 

My  impression  is  that  well-made  maize  ensilage  may  be  taken  out 
of  a  silo  and  freely  exposed  to  the  air  without  becoming  mouldy  and 
unfit  for  feeding  purposes.  Rye  ensilage  appears  not  to  keep  so 
well  when  taken  out  of  the  silo  ;  should  be  consumed  without  much 
delay. 

The  fact  that  maize  ensilage  keeps  sound  and  free  from  mouldiness 
better  than  rye  ensilage  appears  to  me  to  be  due  to  the  circumstance 
that  maize  contains  more  sugar  than  green  rye.  In  the  silo  the 
sugar  in  the  green  food  enters  into  acid  fermentation  ;  and  the 
organic  acids  formed  from  the  sugar  are,  as  you  are  aware,  prevent- 
ives of  decay  of  organic  vegetable  matters.  In  the  case  of  maize, 
more  acids,  such  as  acetic,  lactic,  butyric  and  similar  aromatic 
organic  acids,  are  generated  than  in  the  case  of  green  rye,  for  the 
latter  is  much  poorer  in  sugar  than  maize,  and  this  is  no  doubt  the 
reason  why  maize  keeps  better  than  green  rye. 

The  proportion  of  acids  in  ensilage  I  find  varies  a  good  deal,  and 
the  nature  of  the  organic  acids  in  ensilage  also  is  subject  to  consid- 
erable variations.  In  some  instances  I  have  found  the  prevailing 
acid  in  maize  ensilage  to  be  non-volatile  lactic  acid  ;  in  other  samples 


AMEEICAN"   EITSILAGE. 


505 


lately  examined  by  me  most  of  the  acids  in  ensilage  I  found  to  be 
acetic  and  butyric  acid. 

A  short  time  ago  a  sample  of  maize  ensilage  was  sent  to  me  from 
Canada,  in  which  I  found,  in  round  numbers,  one  per  cent,  of 
butyric  and  other  volatile  organic  acids.  This  sample  contained 
85.69  per  cent,  of  water,  or  fully  three  per  cent,  more  than  the 
sample  which  was  sent  to  me  from  Boston,  and  although  it  has  been 
freely  exposed  to  the  air  for  nearly  two  months,  the  ensilage  is 
perfectly  free  from  white  mould.  The  Boston  sample,  on  exposure 
to  the  air  for  about  a  fortnight,  got  slightly  mouldy  on  the  top 
layers,  but  not  nearly  to  the  same  extent  as  the  rye  ensilage. 

The  following  are  the  results  which  I  have  obtained  in  the  careful 
and  defailed  analysis  of  the  average  samples  drawn  from  the  two 
barrels  of  Boston  ensilage. 

Composition  of  two  samples  of  ensilage  sent  from  Boston  : 


Percentage  of  Dry  Substance  Soluble  in 
Water,  4.08. 

Rye 

Ensilage. 

Maize 
Ensilage. 

Water 

75.19 
.86 
.11 

.02 
1.10 
1.01 

.98 

.75 

8.41 

11.08 

.49 

100.00 

.16 
.12 

82.401  g  „ 
•59     =■■„ 
.22     =rw 

1.26^  =  ? 
2.58     ^g 

.60J  ^  •" 

.76]  -if?? 
5.4:3  1  s:-=-r 

100.00 

.08 
.12 

Fatty  matters  and  chloroiihv 

e 

Butyric  and  other  volatile  . . 

Organic  acids 

Lactic  acid 

Soluble  extractive  matters 

"Soluble  albuminoids 

Soluble  mineral  matters 

Percentage  of  dry  substance 
in  water,  20.73. 
**Insoluble  albuminoids 

insoluble 

Dijrestible  cellular  libre 

Indigestible  fibre 

Insoluble  mineral  matters 

♦Containing  nitroscen 

♦♦Containing  nitrogen '' 

You  will  notice  that  the  rye  ensilage  contains  about  seven  per 
cent,  less  moi.sture  than  the  maize  ensilage,  and  much  less  acid  than 
the  latter.  Probably  the  green  rye  was  too  far  advanced  in  growth 
before  it  was  put  into  silos,  and  not  so  rich  in  sugar  as  it  was  at  an 
earlier  stage,  when  it  contained  less  indigestible  woody  fibre. 

Much  of  the  success  in  making  ensilage  depends  upon  the  proper 
state  of  maturity  of  the  green  food.  Green  rye,  maize,  and,  in 
fact,  all  kinds  of  succulent  vegetable  produce,  should  be  cut  down 
22 


506  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

neither  too  immature  nor  overripe,  but  when  the  green  food  contains 
a  maximum  amount  of  sugar.  Tlie  sweeter  the  green  food  the 
better  it  will  keep  in  silo,  and  the  more  nutritious  and  wholesome  it 
will  turn  out  when  ready  to  be  consumed  by  cows  or  other  live 
stock. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  both  the  rye  and  the  maize  ensilage 
which  you  directed  to  be  sent  to  me  from  Boston  are  good  and 
wholesome  foods.  I  prefer  the  maize  to  the  rye  ensilage,  and 
consider  ensilage  specially  useful  to  milch  cows  in  winter.  Decorti- 
cated cotton  cake  and  ensilage  go  well  together  and  make  rich  milk. 

I  may  say  in  conclusion  that  I  sent  the  ensilage  not  required  for 
analyses  to  our  experimental  station  at  AVoburn,  and  my  farm 
manager  reports  to  me  that  the  cattle  took  to  the  ensilage  at  once 
and  apparently  liked  it  much,  and,  as  far  as  could  be  judged,  did 
well  upon  it.  On  the  other  hand,  fattening  pigs  did  not  care  for  the 
ensilage,  and  would  not  touch  it  at  first. 

[Signed]  Augustus  Voelcker. 

Mr.  Atkinson's  suggestion  that  ensilage,  packed  in  casks, 
might  furnish  an  excellent  food  for  fat  cattle  in  transit 
to  Europe,  is  a  good  one,  but  perhaps  he  overestimates 
the  comparative  value,  and  we  can  well  believe  it  to  be 
practical  from  experiments  made  by  us  more  than  25  years 
ago.  We  took  a  large  linseed-oil  cask  and  pressed  green 
clover  into  it  in  June,  pressing  in  the  head  and  sealing  the 
seams  with  white  lead.  This  was  kept  for  a  year  without 
the  appearance  of  fermentation,  the  blossoms  looking  bright 
on  opening. 

His  suggestion  of  the  use  of  ensilage  in  feeding  sheep  in 
New  England  is  in  the  same  vein  as  ours  on  pages  435-37. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  ensilage  will  make  the  staple  of 
wool  uniform  throughout.  See  experiment  with  steamed 
food,  pages  456-7. 

Dr.  Voelcker's  analysis  and  report  are  interesting  and 
important,  as  showing  that  the  acid  in  ensilage  is  princi- 
l)ally  lactic,  which  is  supposed  to  be  favorable  to  the  pro- 
duction of  agreeably-flavored   milk.    The  Doctor  gives  a 


.    AMERICAN   ENSILAGE.  507 

decided  indorsement  of  ensilage  for  milch  cows.  His 
opinion  of  the  comparative  value  of  corn  and  rye  ensilage 
arose,  no  doubt,  from  the  too  ripe  condition  of  the  rye 
when  stored.  We  shall  see  that  the  practical  test  of  com- 
parison, made  on  Mr.  Ilavemeyer's  herd,  showed  rye  ensi- 
lage much  superior  to  green  corn.  Rye,  when  cut,  just 
before  blossom,  shows,  on  analysis,  nearly  50  per  cent,  more 
nutriment  than  green  corn  ready  for  the  silo. 

We  find  the  following  account  of  Mr.  Ilavemeyer's  use 
of  ensilage  in  the  American  Cultivator : 

Ensilage  in  I^ew  Jersey. 

**  AVhile  the  adoption  of  the  ensilage  system  has  spread 
enormously  during  the  past  year  or  two,  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  so  valuable  and  exhaustive  a  test  of  its  merits  has 
been  made  as  at  Mountainside  Farm,  New  Jersey,  the 
property  of  Theodore  A.  Havemeyer,  of  New  York  City. 
It  was  a  .bold  measure,  several  years  ago,  to  substitute 
ensilage  exclusively  for  hay  in  the  feeding  of  one  of  the 
finest  and  most  valuable  herds  of  Jersey  cattle  in  the 
world,  a  herd  that  would  probably  sell  at  auction  for 
upwards  of  8100,000,  and  where  the  income  from  the  sale 
of  high-bred  calves  was  of  the  first  importance.  It  was 
still  bolder  from  the  fact  that  in  so  doing  the  grain  ration 
of  the  cows  was  cut  down  to  one-half  that  which  had 
l)reviously  been  fed  with  hay,  causing  greater  physical 
dependence  upon  the  new  food.  It  was  still  bolder  when, 
having  passed  through  the  winter,  the  cattle  were  not 
turned  upon  pasture  in  the  spring,  thus  giving  a  respite 
from  ensiloed  food,  as  has  been  the  custom  elsewhere. 
From  October,  1881,  until  now,  the  entire  herd,  old  and 
young,  were  kept  upon  ensilage,  without  intermission,  save 
occasionally  when,  for  a  day  or  two,  a  change  was  made 
for  the  sake  of  experiment.     The  result  has  been,  that. 


508  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

with  half  the  amount  of  grain  formerly  fed  with  hay,  the 
same  cows  have  averaged  over  100  pounds  (fifty  quarts) 
more  of  milk  per  month  than  they  did  on  the  old  diet. 
Their  coats  look  glossy  and  sleek,  and  every  indication  is 
that  of  blooming  health.  The  calves  that  have  been 
dropped  upon  the  place  from  silo-fed  parents,  themselves 
silo-reared,  are  pronounced  without  dissent  by  the  hundreds 
who  visit  the  place  to  be  of  the  best  quality  and  in  excellent 
condition.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  another  lot  of 
animals  equally  large,  vigorous  and  healthful  at  various 
ages  can  be  found  short  of  a  climate  that  affords  pasturage 
tlie  year  round.  While  much  of  this  condition  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  parent  herd,  both  as  regards  the  imported 
;ind  the  native-bred  animals,  was  selected  with  an  eye  to 
constitution  and  superior  physical  capacity,  their  blooming 
condition  is  unquestionably  due,  in  a  great  measure,  to  tlie 
method  of  feeding. 

'*  Notwithstanding  the  undoubted  success  of  ensilage 
feeding,  Mr.  Havemeyer  and  his  foreman,  Mr.  flayer,  admit 
there  are  some  facts  connected  with  ensilage  that  are  hard 
to  account  for.  While  it  appears  inlprobable  that  the  feeding 
value  of  green  forage  could  be  improved  upon  its  natural 
condition  when  fresh  by  stowage  under  pressure  in  a  pit, 
the  experiments  at  Mountainside  Farm  raise  the  question 
tit  least  to  the  dignity  of  a  debatable  one.  When  in 
August  last  the  working  force  of  the  farm  was  concentrated 
upon  the  great  work  of  transporting  the  fifty  acres  of  green 
corn-fodder  from  the  fields  in  which  it  grew,  through  the 
giant  cutters  and  carriers,  in^to  the  great  pits  where  it  was 
to  be  preserved  for  the  coming  year's  use,  a  pit  of  ensilaged 
rye-fodder  which  had  been  stored  earlier  in  the  season,  and 
from  which  the  herd  were  being  fed,  gave  out.  To  open 
a  new  pit  would  be  to  divert  the  use  of  the  machinery  and 
the  time  of  three  or  four  men  from  the  special  work  of 
harvesting,  to  which  all  energies  were  being  devoted.     Mr. 


AMERICAN   EifSILAGE.  509 

Mayer,  therefore,  ordered  that  several  loads  of  the  corn- 
fodder  cut  fresh  in  the  field  should  be  placed  before  the 
cows  instead  of  their  customary  feeds  of  ensilage. 

''They  ate  it  with  great  relish,  and  they  ate  a  much 
larger  quantity  than  they  did  of  the  rye  ensilage ;  never- 
theless, with  the  same  grain  ration,  they  fell  off  in  milk. 
Thinking  the  result  due  to  the  fact  that  the  ensilage  had 
had  the  advantage  of  having  passed  through  the  cutter, 
the  fresh  corn-fodder  was  then  submitted  to  that  treatment 
instead  of  being  fed  long,  but  the  milk  continued  to 
diminish  until  at  the  end  of  three  days  the  average  daily 
shrinkage  per  cow  was  four  pounds  (two  quarts),  which, 
when  tested  in  quality,  showed  two  per  cent,  less  cream. 
A  new  pit  of  ensilage  was  opened,  and  in  two  days  the 
cows  were  back  to  their  full  flow.  This  comparison  be- 
tween ensilage  rye  and  fresh  corn-fodder  is  the  more  sur- 
prising from  the  fact  that  as  a  fresh  feed  rye-fodder  is 
inferior  to  corn-fodder. 

*'  The  discrepancy  cannot  be  attributed  to  a  difference  in 
amount  of  food,  for,  as  carefully  ascertained,  the  cows  ate 
sixty  pounds  of  the  corn  against  twenty-five  pounds  of  the 
rye.  The  chemical  theory  is  that  the  method  of  storing 
ensilage  causes  it  to  develop  lactic  acid,  which  is  in  itself  a 
stage  of  digestion,  and  so  effective  in  its  action  that  the 
food  renders  a  maximum  of  its  nutriment  to  the  support 
of  the  animal." 

The  value  of  the  above  statement  consists  in  the  main 
and  undoubted  facts  stated — that  a  great  herd  of  dairy 
cows  had  been  fed  uj^on  ensilage,  steadily,  for  18  months, 
remaining  in  health  and  satisfactory  yield  of  milk ;  calves 
healthy  and  of  vigorous  growth,  with  a  large  reduction  of 
the  grain  ration.  These  are  important  facts.  But  the  state- 
ment that  the  cows  lost  four  pounds  of  milk  each  in  three 
days  by  a  change  to  green  corn,  and  gained  it  again  in  two 
days  on  being  fed  corn  ensilage,  we  must  regard  as  an  error 


510  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

in  length  of  time  at  least.  A  change  of  food  does  not  so 
suddenly  affect  the  yield.  Then  it  is  an  error  to  say  that 
green  rye  m  proper  condition  of  maturity  is  inferior  to 
green  corn.  It  is  true  that  cows  prefer  the  taste  of  green 
corn — they  even  prefer  it  to  green  clover^  but  who  supposes 
it  to  be  superior  to  green  clover ! 

A  Trial  of  Corn  Ensilage  with  Dry  Food. 

Mr.  Henry  E.  Alvord,  the  very  intelligent  director  of 
Houghton  Farm,  gives,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  New 
York  Agricultural  Society,  and  published  in  the  last  Re- 
port, an  interesting  trial  of  the  effect  of  corn  ensilage  with 
grain  compared  with  dry  food  and  grain,  in  feeding  two  lots 
of  six  Jersey  cows  each,  for  twelve  weeks.  The  following 
is  a  statement  of  the  exj^eriment : 

These  twelve  cows  were  fed  and  treated  alike  for  a  fort- 
night prior  to  beginning  the  record,  and  then  for  twelve 
weeks  their  treatment  was  exactly  the  same,  except  that 
one  set  of  six  (lot  A)  received  only  corn  ensilage,  besides 
grain,  while  the  other  set  (lot  B)  had  dry  forage  only.  The 
uniform  grain  ration  was  a  mixture  of  four  pounds  of  corn- 
meal,  four  ]30unds  wheat  bran  and  one  and  one-half  pounds 
cotton-seed  meal,  fed  in  two  portions.  Lot  A  received 
sixty  pounds  ensilage  per  day,  it  being  of  average  quality, 
as  per  analysis  given  hereafter,  and  lot  B  received  twelve 
pounds  of  cut  stover  and  five  pounds  cut  meadow-hay  daily. 
The  coarse  forage  in  both  cases  was  fed  in  two  portions, 
one  separate  from  the  grain,  while  at  the  other  time  these 
were  mixed.  The  following  is  the  milk  record  of  the  two 
lots  for  the  twelve  weeks'  trial : 


AMERICAN   EXSILAGE. 


511 


Six  Cows^Tebsets. 

■So 

il 

°1 

111 

SO" 

Mo    . 

lbs.  oz. 

825    2 

816    6 

lbs.  oz. 

731    12 
722    14 

lbs.    oz. 

9.295    9 
9.375    5 

lbs.  oz. 

774    10 

781      8 

lbs.  oz. 
18      7 

Lot  B — dry  feed         

16    W 

The  periodic  loss  or  shrinkage  of  milk  for  every  division 
of  four  weeks,  comparing  the  quantity  on  the  first  and  last 
days  of  these  divisions,  was  as  follows  (gains  marked  +  and 
losses  — )  : 


Cows. 

January. 

February. 

March. 

Total, 
12  weeks. 

Lot  A  

lbs.      oz. 

-60      2 
+  1      0 

lbs.     oz. 

-8      3 
—24      9 

lbs.     oz. 

—25      0 
—70      6 

lbs.   oz. 
93        5 

Lot  B             

93      15 

As  to  the  quality  of  the  milk  from  the  two  lots,  these  facts 
were  ascertained,  the  figures  being  averages  of  the  chemical 
and  practical  tests : 


>> 

.5-^' 

'o 

«.«* 

-,-o 

i 

s  s 

X 

.2 

Sg 

u 

Six  Cows— Jerseys. 

1-5 

8 

i! 

9  S    . 

Ill 

«2 

b-'^ 

^ 

^ 

S 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Lot  A           

1032 
1029 

14.16 
13.81 

3.95 
3.93 

r 

22.9 

Lot  B    

20.2 

The  butter  from  the  milk  of  the  ensilage-fed  cows  was 
decidedly  better,  both  in  color  and  flavor,  than  that  from 
the  other  lot.  In  April  the  ensilage  was  discontinued,  and 
lot  A  put  on  entirely  dry  feed,  the  same  as  lot  B.     Then, 


512 


FEEDIl^G    AKIMALS. 


after  one  week's  intermission,  the  two  were  compared  for 
four  weeks  more  with  this  result  : 

Lot  A,  687  lbs.  0  oz.  milk  per  week,  or  16  lbs.  6  oz.  per 
day  and  cow. 

Lot  B,  702  lbs.  2  oz.  milk  per  week,  or  16  lbs.  11  oz.  per 
day  and  cow. 

Tracing  this  trial  all  through,  it  is  seen  that  the  results 
in  quantity  of  product  are  slightly  in  favor  of  the  dry-fed 
cows.  But  this  is  offset  by  the  better  quality  of  the  butter 
as  well  as  the  more  thrifty  and  healthful  appearance  of  the 
animals  fed  on  ensilage. 

The  great  variation  in  the  chemical  composition  of  corn 
ensilage  is  shown  in  the  following  results  of  numerous 
analyses : 


Parts  in 

100  LBS. 

Water. 

Albumi- 
noids. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Crude 
fibre. 

Ash. 

Maximum 

Minimum    

Average 

84.9 
74.1 
81.4 

1.9 

.9 

1.3 

.9 

i 

13.4 
9;6 

7.9 
4.7 
5.9 

1  4 

1. 

1.2 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  Mr.  Alvord  did  not  note  accu- 
rately the  weight  of  each  lot  of  cows  at  the  beginning  and 
the  end  of  the  experiment.  This  might  have  shown  an 
important  difference.  He  remarks  the  better  quality  of 
butter  and  the  better  and  healthier  condition  of  the  cows 
fed  on  ensilage.  These  two  points  alone  may  furnish  a 
very  sufficient  reason  for  feeding  ensilage  instead  of  dry 
fodder.  There  are  some  occult  facts  that  chemistry  does 
not  as  yet  explain.  Chemists  think  they  have  demon- 
strated that  grass  does  not  lose  materially  in  nutriment  in 
the  process  of  drying.  But  still  the  great  fact  remains 
that  cattle  can  be  fattened  rapidly  upon  grass,  but  cannot 
be  fattened  upon  hay.     It  is  practical  nonsense  to  say  that 


AMERICAN   ENSILAGE.  513 

dry  food  has  the  same  feeding  value  as  it  had  when  green 
and  succulent. 

There  is  much  yet  to  learu  in  reference  to  the  best  ensi- 
lage crops,  or,  rather,  it  will  be  found  that  a  greater  variety 
of  green  food  must  be  ensilaged,  so  as  to  furnish  a  well- 
balanced  ensilage  ration.  By  referring  to  page  224,  analyses 
will  be  .found  of  20  green  fodders  in  a  proper  condition  for 
ensilaging.  Dr.  Voelcker's  analysis  shows  that  ensilage 
does  not  contain  any  important  quantity  of  acetic  acid,  but 
mostly  lactic  and  butyric  acids,  which  may  be  considered 
helps  to  digestion. 


514  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 


APPENDIX 

TO  THE  THIRD   EDITION. 

Fastening  Cattle  jn  Stable. 

It  should  be  the  aim  of  all  feeders  to  give  cattle  as  much 
freedom  of  motion  and  comfort  in  position  as  can  be  done 
without  too  much  extra  labor  and  expense.  The  most 
comfortable  method  is,  of  course,  the  box  stall,  but  this  is 
quite  too  expensive  for  common  use;  will  be  used  only  for 
the  most  expensive  thoroughbreds — and  the  general  dairy- 
man is  content  to  place  his  cows'  heads  between  two  sticks, 
called  stanchions. 

This  last  mode  has  simplicity  and  the  minimum  of  labor 
to  recommend  it,  but  it  is  really  unjust  treatment  of  that 
most  useful  animal,  the  cow,  and  ought  to  be  abolished. 
And  for  this  purpose  we  invented  the  plan  shown  at  page 
98,  Fig.  10.  A  post  4x6  inches  (No.  9)  stands  between 
each  two  cows,  and  12  inches  above  the  floor  is  driven  a 
three-quarter  inch  staple,  12  inches  long,  into  the  center  of 
the  side  of  the  post,  as  seen  in  (10).  There  is  another 
staple  driven  into  the  opposite  post,  and  a  quarter  inch 
cable  chain  (11)  stretching  from  staple  to  staple,  with  a 
ring  on  each  end,  to  slide  up  and  down  on  the  staple,  and 
a  ring  in  the  middle  into  which  the  animal  is  to  be  fastened. 
A  leather  strap,  one  and  one-half  inches  wide,  with  a  strong 
breast  snap  slipped  on,  is  riveted  on  the  cow's  neck  with 
3  small  copper  rivets.     The  cow  is  brought  upon  the  plat- 


APPENDIX.  515 

form  and  the  snap  is  snapped  into  the  ring  in  the  middle 
of  the  chain.  The  cow  is  thus  held  in  the  middle  of  her 
space,  and  cannot  move  sidewise  to  annoy  her  neighbor. 
But  as  there  is  a  little  slack  to  the  chain,  and  the  strap  can 
slip  backward  and  forward  upon  the  neck,  she  can  move 
backward  or  forward,  can  lie  down  or  get  up  as  easily  as  ii 
not  fastened  at  all,  and  can  turn  her  head  and  lick  her 
shoulders,  or  any  part  of  her  body,  as  freely  as  she  chooses. 
Her  movement  is  remarkably  free,  and  her  position  in 
lying  down  as  unconstrained  as  in  the  field. 

In  order  to  allow  this  freedom  of  backing  up  without 
permitting  her  to  pass  her  horns  past  the  post  to  annoy  her 
neighbor,  a  plank  12  or  14  inches  wide  is  set  edgewise 
behind  the  post,  as  shown  in  illustration  No.  1,  here  given. 
And,  not  being  able  to  back  past  this  plank,  she  cannot 
molest  her  neighbor  on  either  side.  A  plank  5  feet  long, 
(12)  in  Fig.  10,  seen  also  in  Fig.  1,  is  set  against  the  front 
edge  of  the  post,  reaching  down  to  the  manger.  This 
plank  in  front  prevents  each  cow  from  eating  her  neighbor's 
food. 

After  having  tested  this  arrangement  of  staples  in  the 
side  of  the  posts,  and  finding  that  the  rings  soon  wear  ofE 
by  the  friction  in  sliding  up  and  down  on  the  staples,  we 
devised  a  way  of  avoiding  this  wear  by  stretching  a  quarter- 
inch  chain  13  inches  above  the  floor,  the  whole  length 
of  the  stable,  and  fastening  it  to  each  post  by  a  strong 
staple  driven  through  or  astride  of  a  link.  The  chain  is 
given  a  slack  between  each  two  posts,  so  as  to  allow  the 
center  of  the  chain  to  rise  and  fall  six  inches.  This  effects 
the  same  purpose  as  the  long  staples,  and  the  chain  does 
not  wear  so  fast ;  besides,  this  fastening  costs  only  about 
half  as  much  as  the  other.     The  ring,  in  the  center  of  each 


516  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

cow's  space,  is  made  a  swivel,  so  that  the  cow  cannot  twist 
the  chain.  This  swivel  is  made  by  forming  a  link,  with 
one  flat  side  1  inch  wide.  The  stem  of  the  ring  is  inserted 
through  the  flat  side  of  the  link  and  headed,  leaving  play 
enough  to  turn  easily.  A  link  is  cut  out  of  the  chain  and 
the  swivel  link  welded  in.  This  new  method  is  shown 
in  Fig.  1,  this  Appendix.  It  was  also  found  better  to 
have  two  fixed  standards  or  false  stanchions  to  prevent  the 
cow  from  reaching  too  far  in  the  manger.  These  false 
stanchions  are  12  inches  apart,  so  that  the  head  can  be  put 
through  easily  and  withdrawn  at  will.  These  are  also 
shown  in  Fig.  1, 

Watering   Cattle   in  Stable. 

Watering  is  a  very  important  part  in  the  management  of 
cattle.  Each  animal  should  be  able  to  drink  in  stable  as 
free  from  molestation  as  it  eats.  The  method  of  giving 
water  in  stable,  seen  in  Fig.  10,  page  !i8,  (No.  7.)  But  this 
shows  a  sheet-iron  trough,  which  was  found  to  rust  out  in 
about  five  years  from  the  action  of  salt;  and  we  found  a  V- 
shaped  trough  of  one  and  one  half  inch  Norway  pine,  much 
better,  as  well  as  cheaper.  This  trough  being  of  resinous 
wood  will  be  very  durable.  It  is  placed  in  the  center  of 
the  bottom  of  the  manger,  because  it  could  not  be  drawn 
out  of  the  reservoir  in  our  barn  if  placed  higher.  When 
the  bottom  of  the  reservoir  is  high  enough  to  draw  the 
water  into  a  trough  two  feet  from  the  floor,  then  it  is  better 
to  have  the  water  trough  on  the  inside  of  the  front  of  the 
manger  above  the  feed,  where  it  will  be  more  easily 
kept  clean.  This  trough  will  be  continuous  the  whole 
length  of  the  stable,  and  there  may  be  a  light  lid  for  each 
animal,  which  it  will  soon  learn  to  open  with  its  nose. 


APPENDIX. 


617 


Fig.  1. 


518  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

and  then  fall  back  when  the  head  is  withdrawn.  The 
position  for  this  trough  can  be  seen  in  Fig.  1.  This  lid  will 
keep  all  feed  from  getting  into  the  trough.  The  water  is 
drawn  from  a  pipe  into  one  end  of  the  trough,  and  when 
nearly  full  runs  out  at  the  other,  and  is  discharged  into  a 
drain.  But  to  prevent  waste  of  water,  when  that  is  an 
object,  the  water  pipe  can  be  closed  when  the  trough  is 
full.  We  discontinued  the  use  of  the  lid  in  the  bottom  of 
the  manger,  because  the  hinges  soon  rusted  and  broke. 

One  important  advantage  of  watering  in  stable  in  winter 
is  the  milder  temperature  of  the  water,  thus  saving  the 
food  required  to  warm  the  water  in  the  cow's  stomach  from 
near  the  freezing  point  to  about  60°  =  28°.  It  is  no  incon- 
siderable loss  of  food  to  warm  6  to  8  gallons  of  water 
daily  in  the  stomach  of  each  cow.  There  can  be  little 
doubt  that  the  saving  in  one  winter  will  repay  the  whole 
expense  of  such  an  arrangement  for  watering. 

The  animals  may  be  let  out  for  air  and  exercise  to  suit  the 
ideas  of  the  feeder,  but  it  is  bad  economy  to  let  out  cows 
in  stormy  weather.  The  comfortable  way  of  tying  animals, 
here  represented,  renders  it  unnecessary  to  let  them  out 
except  in  fine  weather.  Cows  do  not  need  very  much 
exercise.  It  may  be  said  that  no  animal  is  more  sensitive 
to  cold  than  the  milch  cow,  and  none  so  seriously  affected 
in  product  by  such  exposure.  Milk  cannot  be  produced 
profitably  with  cows  exposed  to  the  weather. 

Improvement  of  Breed  by  Feeding. 

By  an  oversight  the  following  experiment  was  omitted 
from  the  previous  editions.  We  do  not  think  there  is  any 
danger  of  inciting  too  much  confidence  in  improved  feed- 
ing.    There  has  been  a  surplus  of  enthusiasm  on  the  part 


APPENDIX.  519 

of  breeders,  to  impress  the  public  of  the  cattle  industry, 
that  the  only  lack  is  the  breed  to  warrant  a  commanding 
success.  Whereas,  it  is  most  manifest,  that  the  best  and 
most  judicious  feeders  of  all  the  imported  breeds  have  been 
the  most  successful.  The  Jerseys  have  made  records 
twenty-five  to  fifty  per  cent,  larger  here  than  on  their 
native  Island  of  Jersey.  It  is  quite  as  true  also  of  the 
Holstein-Friesians.  They  have  largely  surpassed  here  any 
performance  in  their  native  land. 

All  imported  breeds  have  found  here  congenial  food  and 
climate,  and  all  have  responded  to  our  more  liberal  feeding. 
It  would  be  simply  absurd  to  suppose  that  our  improved 
selection  in  breeding  had  advanced  those  breeds  to  a  higher 
performance.  They  can  transmit  by  heredity  only  such 
development  as  they  have  heretofore  had,  but  can  never 
produce  anything  beyond  the  combination  of  characteristics 
inherited  in  the  animals  bred.  The  most  magnificent 
breed  will  soon  be  brought  into  contempt,  however  well 
selected,  under  a  system  of  scanty  feeding,  such  as  is  often 
given  to  common  slock,  whilst  skill  in  feeding  will  greatly 
improve  common  stock  in  three  generations.  We  think  it 
not  extravagant  to  say  that  all  skill  in  breeding  is  compar- 
atively useless  without  skill  in  feeding,  whilst  skill  in  feed- 
ing will  grow  profitable  animals  without  skill  in  breeding. 
In  this  we  do  not  intend  to  undervalue  selection  in  breed- 
ing, but  only  to  emphasize  the  point  that  skill  in  feeding 
is  prerequisite  to  any  adequate  success  in  growing  ani- 
mals. 

An  abnormal  development  of  the  muscular  or  osseous 
systems,  either  or  both,  may  be  accomplished  in  the  selec- 
tion of  food.  Nature  seeks  uniformity  in  her  productions, 
but  yet  that  certain  elements,  both  in  the  vegetable  and 


520  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

animal  bodies,  may  be  developed  out  of  proporti«n,  is  well 
known. 

The  same  plant  or  seed  will  develop  quite  differently  in 
different  soils.  Even  one  element  may  be  substituted  for 
another,  such  as  potash  for  soda  in  the  mineral  elements  of 
plants ;  the  proportion  of  the  elements  may  be  changed 
by  the  composition  of  the  food  presented  to  it.  The  most 
intelligent  feeders  know  that  you  may  increase  the  size  of 
the  frame,  or  cause  an  unusual  deposit  of  fat,  by  the  selec- 
tion of  the  ration. 

Let  us  suppose  that  we  have  a  breed  in  which  a  small 
frame  is  characteristic  and  of  long  standing.  A  few  gen- 
erations, of  special  feeding  to  that  end,  may  so  enlarge  the 
frame  as  to  appear  like  an  essential  modification  of  the 
original  breed,  and  this,  persisted  in,  becomes  a  fixed 
characteristic.  And  this  change  may  be  effected  while 
simply  breeding  these  animals  together,  which  are  subject 
to  this  special  feeding  without  special  selection  of  animals 
to  that  end.  We  must  therefore  credit  special  feeding  with 
this  variation  of  a  breed. 

A  breed  of  cattle  that  has  long  been  known  for  their  lean 
condition  may,  by  special  feeding  to  that  end,  be  made 
susceptible  ot  laying  on  fat  in  large  proportion ;  and  this 
changed  characteristic  may  be  perpetuated  by  breeding. 
The  old  Longhorns  upon  which  Bakewell  experimented 
were  of  this  sort,  and  according  to  one  account,  the  chief 
merit  of  this  breed,  as  he  left  them,  was  to  make  fat.  He 
had  so  far  changed  them  that  they  laid  on  fat  as  much  in 
excess  as  they  had  before  been  deficient  in  fat  deposit..  He 
is  said  to  have  begun  with  two  Longhorn  heifers  and  a 
Longhorn  bull,  and  confined  himself  to  these  and  their 
progeny.    It  must  be  admitted  that  simply  breeding  from 


APPENDIX.  521 

these  three  animals  without  any  improvement  in  feeding 
could  not  have  produced  such  a  change. 

The  author  tried  an  experiment  over  twenty  years  ago 
with  three  common  blood  heifers,  red,  with  a  few  roan 
spots  on  sides,  of  thin  angular  habits,  purchased  under  two 
years  old  from  a  poor  feeder,  whose  greatest  anxiety  was  to 
make  his  fodder  hold  out,  whether  his  cattle  did  or  not. 
These  were  in  calf,  and  purchased  to  see  what  effect  im- 
proved feeding  would  have  upon  them  and  their  progeny 
for  a  few  generations.  A  common  scrub  bull  of  similar 
color  and  breeding,  but  not  of  kin,  was  purchased  to  serve 
these  heifers  in  future.  The  dams  of  these  heifers  were  never 
known  to  give  more  than  20  pounds  of  milk  per  day  at  their 
flush.  We  began  feeding  them  with  the  design  of  develop- 
ing the  milk  yield,  and  also  enlarging  the  frame,  as  they  did 
not  probably  weigh  over  600  pounds  each.  The  grain  ration 
consisted  of  oats  and  corn,  in  the  proportion  of  three  of 
oats  to  one  of  corn,  and  one  bushel  of  flax  seed  to  sixteen 
bushels  of  the  mixture,  all  ground  together ;  and  with 
this  was  mixed  an  equal  weight  of  wheat  bran.  As  they 
had  never  before  had  any  grain,  we  began  with  one  quart 
of  the  mixture  per  day,  and  in  ten  days  added  another 
quart.  This  was  continued  about  three  months  to  their 
first  calving.  Those  first  calves  were  thin  and  scrawny, 
requiring  a  long  time  to  give  plumpness  to  them.  They 
were  two  heifers  and  one  bull,  and  all  finally  became 
thrifty,  and  averaged  600  pounds  at  a  year  old. 

The  dams  of  these  had  been  fed  well  through  this  year 
with  their  first  calves,  but  neither  of  them  had  given  more 
than  16  pounds  of  milk  per  day  at  the  best.  One  of  the 
three  had  utilized  her  good  feed  in  filling  her  lank  places 
witli  fat,  in  straightening  her  top  and  bottom  lines,  and 


522  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

she  became  a  very  shapely  heifer,  but  she  had  given  very 
little  milk.  The  second  calves  of  all  three  heifers  were  in 
very  decided  contrast  to  their  first.  These  fed  finely  from 
the  start,  and  averaged  800  pounds  at  a  year  old.  In  fact, 
they  did  not  appear  to  belong  to  the  same  breed  as  their 
dams  when  we  bought  them.  Even  those  dams  (the 
original  heifers)  had  become  very  shapely  cows — two  of 
them  had  developed  into  fine  milkers,  and  the  other  had 
taken  on  fat  instead  of  yielding  milk.  She  was  still  kept 
to  test  the  effect  of  her  fat  condition  upon  her  subsequent 
calves.  Her  second  calf  (a  bull)  born  in  her  fat  condition, 
was  itself  extremely  well  developed,  and  fed  very  well, 
reaching  a  weight  of  825  pounds  at  a  year  old,  and  sold  to 
the  butcher  for  $55.  Her  third  calf  (a  male)  was  not  as 
good  as  the  second,  because  her  condition  was  too  fat  to 
bear  a  strong  healthy  calf.  Yet  this  calf  fed  well,  and  laid 
on  fat  remarkably  for  its  age;  weight  600  pounds  at  8, 
months,  and  sold  for  |36. 

The  heifer  calves  bred  and  dropped  calves  at  two  years 
old,  and  these  calves  were  good  feeders  and  good  milkers, 
with  only  one  or  two  exceptions.  For  four  generations 
they  continued  to  improve  in  form  and  size,  and  as  milk 
yielders.  Each  generation  became  more  economical  of 
food — that  is,  produced  a  larger  growth  or  more  milk  from 
a  given  amount  of  food.  Some  of  the  heifers  of  the  third 
generation  produced  28  to  30  pounds  of  milk  per  day  with 
their  first  calves,  yielding  over  5,500  pounds  of  milk  at 
two  years  old. 

Two  of  the  original  cows  increased  in  milk  till  seven 
years  old,  when  they  averaged  over  7,000  pounds  per  year, 
yielding  40  pounds  per  day  at  the  flush.  The  dams  of 
these,  as  near  as  we  could  ascertain,  had  never  yielded  over 


-A.PPENDIX.  523 

3,500  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year,  and  yielding  only  20  pounds 
per  day  at  the  best.  Here  the  result  of  special  feeding 
for  a  few  years  was  equal  to  doubling  the  yield  of  milk, 
and  the  heifers  had  so  changed  in  general  appearance  that 
the  farmer  who  sold  them  to  us  could,  with  difficulty,  be 
persuaded  that  they  were  the  same  animals,  and  on  seeing 
them  milked,  declared  that  the  yield  of  milk  was  fully 
twice  as  much  as  their  dams  had  ever  given.  These  heifers 
had  also  increased  in  weight  some  40  per  cent,  over  their 
dams,  reaching  1,000  pounds.  Two  heifers,  of  the  third 
generation,  reached  a  weight  of  1,100  pounds,  and  pro- 
duced a  yield  of  7,500  and  7,800  pounds  of  milk.  These 
heifers,  in  contour,  would  not  suffer  by  comparison  with 
the  average  Shorthorn.  The  third  generation  became 
remarkably  uniform  in  conformation,  size,  color,  form  of 
head  and  horn.  The  color  became  a  deeper  red,  with  only 
a  trace  of  roan. 

These  animals  of  the  fourth  generation  were  so  near 
alike  as  to  remind  one  of  the  members  of  a  family  of  some 
special  strain  of  blood  of  a  thoroughbred  race;  and  had  the 
breeding  been  continued  for  four  or  six  generations  further, 
there  was  every  appearance  of  success  in  the  formation  of 
a  distinct  breed,  that  would  reproduce  and  perpetuate 
itself.  It  would  have  proved  a  valuable  milking  strain  of 
blood  —  this  quality  w^as  already  produced  with  much 
uniformity.  We  enlarge  upon  this  experiment  because  we 
think  it  is  quite  time  that  breeders  had  given  more  atten- 
tion to  the  influence  of  food  in  the  establishment  of  breeds. 
Preparing  Food  for  a  Large  Stock. 

Our  attention  has  been  called  to  the  omission  in  the  body 
of  this  work  to  describe  the  complete  apparatus  for  pre- 
paring winter  food  in  the  various  ways  recommended. 


524  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

Of  late  years  basement  stables  have  become  more  com- 
mon than  formerly,  and  this  gives  the  opportunity  for  pre- 
paring the  fodder  in  the  story  above  the  basement,  and 
of  arranging  the  apparatus  most  conveniently  for  saving 
manual  labor.  The  American  farmer  has  cheap  food,  but 
not  cheap  labor,  and  it  is  therefore  of  much  consequence 
to  have  the  labor  done  as  much  by  machinery  as  possible. 
Our  inventors  have  constructed  the  best  cutters  for  reducing 
hay  and  other  fodder  to  fine  chaff,  and  thus  save  much 
labor  of  the  animal  in  mastication.  This  extra  labor  of 
the  animal  costs  more  in  food  than  the  expense  of  running 
the  machinery.  Carriers  are  easily  attached  to  the  cutters, 
that  will  deliver  the  cut  fodder  wherever  required.  It  be- 
comes necessary  often,  not  only  to  wet  the  fodder,  but  to 
mix  grain  food  with  it.  The  author  some  20  years  since 
invented  a  simple 

Mixing  Cylinder, 
which   will  completely  mix  together  all  the  foods  passed 
through  it,  without  any  manual  labor. 

When  the  cutting  is  done  in  the  story  above  the  stable, 
a  circular  opening  is  made  over  the  feeding  floor  below,  in 
a  convenient  position  to  drop  food  into  a  feeding  car  or 
a  steam-box.  In  this  circular  opening  is  placed  a  straight 
cylinder  28  inches  in  diameter  and  three  feet  long,  without 
heads,  but  a  bar  across  the  lower  end,  on  which  an  upright 
revolving  shaft  is  set  in  the  center,  provided  with  six  round 
arms  26  inches  long  to  turn  inside.  Ihis  shaft  will  pass 
through  a  like  cross-bar  on  the  upper  end,  extending  above 
enough  to  receive  a  pulley  of  the  pioper  size  to  revolve  it 
about  300  times  per  minute. 

Now  above  this  Mixer  will  be  placed  a  cask  for  water, 
with  a  water  pipe  leading  into  the  mixer,  having  a  stop- 


APPENDIX.  525 

cock  to  regulate  quantity.  This  water  cask  may  be  filled 
with  a  force  pump  by  the  engine  or  by  hand.  An  elevated 
meal  bin,  having  a  spout  with  a  slide  to  regulate  quantity, 
may  deliver  the  heavy  meal  into  the  mixer.  But  if  the 
feed  be  bran  or  malt  sprouts,  it  will  require  putting  in  by 
hand  or  by  small  cups  upon  a  revolving  belt.  But  it  is 
probably  the  better  way  to  mix  the  corn  meal,  bran,  oil 
meal,  etc.,  together  in  the  proper  proportion,  and  put  the 
mixture  in  the  elevated  meal  bin,  and  all  may  be  drawn 
through  the  spout  together.  A  belt  will  be  run  from  the 
pulley  on  top  of  the  mixer  back  to  a  pulley  on  the  straw 
cutter  which  is  to  revolve  the  shaft  in  the  mixer.  The 
carrier  from  the  cutter  will  deliver  the  cut  hay  or  other 
fodder  into  this  mixer,  and  the  water  pipe  will  be  made  to 
discharge  3  gallons  to  every  5  bushels  of  cut  fodder,  and 
the  meal  will  be  let  in  in  the  proper  proportion,  and  when 
the  straw  cutter  gets  under  motion,  all  will  be  moving  to- 
gether, and  as  the  feed  and  meal  and  water  in  falling 
throufrh  the   mixer  will  come  in  contact  with  these  swift 

o 

moving  arms  on  the  shaft,  all  will  be  well  mixed  together, 
and  fall  into  the  feeding  car  or  steam-box  below. 

Here  the  entire  labor  is  done  by  machinery,  except 
placing  the  fodder  in  the  cutter,  and  one  man  may  do  all 
this  labor  of  cutting  for  and  feeding  100  head  of  steers  or 
cows.  After  being  wet  and  mixed  as  above,  this  may  lie 
in  mass  in  the  feeding  car  and  slightly  ferment,  when  it 
will  be  well  digested  by  the  cattle;  but  as  some  may  wish 
to  go  into  thorough  cooking  before  feeding,  we  will  give 
descriptions  of  steam  boxes. 

A  wooden  track  should  be  laid  in  the  center  of  the  feed- 
ing floor  on  which  to  run  the  feeding  cars.  A  box  of 
matched  pine  plank  w^ill  be  placed  on  each  car,  5  feet  wide, 


526  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

3  feet  high,  and  16  feet  long,  holding  about  250  bushels  of 
moistened  and  mixed  feed. 

If  this  is  to  be  used  as  a  steara-box,  then  inch  pipe, 
perforated  with  ^-inch  holes  every  12  inches,  should  be  laid 
on  the  bottom  of  the  car,  in  three  lines — first,  12  inches  from 
one  side,  next  in  the  middle,  and  third  12  inches  from  the 
other  side.  Steam  let  in  will  be  forced  through  the  whole 
coil,  and,  escaping  through  the  perforations,  will  be  com- 
pletely diffused  through  the  whole  mass.  It  would  require 
two  of  these  cars  and  boxes  for  a  large  stock,  each  holding 
a  day's  feed.  Each  of  these  boxes  must  have  a  close-fitting 
cover,  hinged  on  the  sides,  and  closing  together  in  the  cen- 
ter. The  feed  should  be  packed  down  solid  before  closing 
the  cover,  which  will  be  held  by  three  cross-bars,  wedged 
down. 

The  upper  edge  of  this  car  may  have  a  strip  of  rubber 
for  the  cover  to  press  upon  to  render  it  steam  tight. 

Rotary  Steam  Box. 

But  if  much  cooking  is  to  be  done,  then  it  will  be  better 
to  have  a  rotary  steam-box,  in  which  steam  may  be  held 
under  some  pressure,  and  cook  the  fodder  more  thoroughly. 
This  is  made  in  the  form  of  a  strong  cask  with  two  heads, 
made  tapering  so  the  heavy  iron  hoops  may  be  driven  to 
keep  it  steam  tight;  then  bolt  a  6X8  inch  timber  across 
each  head,  and  in  the  center  of  each  head  put  a  3-inch 
trunnion  or  gudgeon — introduce  the  steam-pipe  through 
the  trunnion.  Hang  this  in  a  frame  so  as  to  revolve  clear 
of  the  floor. 

The  man-hole,  2^X3  feet,  will  be  at  the  bilge,  surrounded 
by  a  strong  frame,  bolted  to  the  staves — with  strong  hooks 
at  each  corner  through  wliich  to  run  two  bars  over  the 


APPENDIX.  527 

cover;  wedges  to  be  driven  between  the  bj^rs  and  the  cover 
to  hold  it  firmly  closed.  This  steam-box  may  be  made  of 
2-inch  pine  staves  and  heads.  If  this  box  be  8  feet  in 
diameter  and  8  feet  long,  it  will  hold  when  compressed 
about  400  bushels. 

The  advantages  of  this  form  of  box  are,  that  when  filled 
and  rammed  in,  the  steam  may  be  turned  on  and  the  upper 
half  well  steamed,  when  the  man-hole  can  be  turned  down, 
and  the  steam  will  then  rise  through  the  lower  half  turned 
up,  and  thoroughly  steam  this  part,  the  steam  being  forced 
down  through  the  man-hole  at  the  bottom;  besides,  if  the 
water  used  to  wet  it  has  settled  to  the  bottom,  it  will  then 
settle  evenly  through' the  whole  mass;  and  this  box,  hold- 
ing the  steam  under  some  pressure,  will  soften  the  fibrous 
fodder  much  better. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  rotary  box  will  be  stationary, 
and  must  be  directly  under  the  mixer,  so,  when  the  man- 
hole is  turned  up,  it  is  ready  for  filling.  This  would  also 
hold  enough  for  a  day's  feed  for  a  large  stock,  and  for  a 
moderate-sized  stock  it  would  last  two  or  three  days. 

The  cooked  food  would  remain  over  night  in  the  steam- 
box  only  one  feeding  car  would  be  required,  and  this 
would  be  run  alongside,  the  man-hole  turned  toward  the 
car,  opened,  and  the  cooked  food  hauled  into  it.  This 
would  be  the  most  convenient  arrangement  for  doing  the 
work.  This  rotary  box  would  also  be  valuable  for  use  if 
the  fodder  was  only  moisted,  mixed  with  the  ground  feed 
and  left  in  this  to  soften  before  feeding;  as  after  remain- 
ing a  short  time  in  position  as  filled,  the  man-hole  could  be 
turned  down  to  insure  even  moisture.  For  very  large 
feeding  operations  it  would,  probably,  be  better  to  make 
this  rotary  steam  box  of   iron,  which  would  stand  more 


528  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

pressure,  cook  the  fodder  more  perfectly,  and  in  less  time. 
The  first  cost  would  be  greater,  but  the  durability  and 
more  effective  work  of  the  iron  steam-box  might  make  it 
more  economical  in  the  end,  yet  the  wooden  rotary  steam- 
box  could  be  made  so  strong  as  to  do  good  work. 

The  power  for  this  large  apparatus  should  properly  be 
five  to  eight  horse,  and  an  engine  is  the  most  reliable.  This 
would  enable  the  stock-feeder,  not  only  to  cut  the  fodder, 
but  to  grind  the  grain  for  his  stock.  He  could  grind  the 
grain  whilst  he  was  delivering  at  and  returning  it  from  the 
public  mill,  and  he  would  then  have  it  all,  which  often  proves 
much  more  profitable  in  feeding  operations.  These  engines 
are  now  well  made  at  very  low  prices.  Five  horse- powers 
are  sold  as  low  as  $210,  and  larger  ones  in  proportion. 

The  Cost   of  Good  Beef. 

The  editor  of  the  Country  Gentleman  referred  to  us  a 
question  propounded  by  Mr.  Edward  Atkinson,  of  Boston, 
"What  does  it  cost  to  raise  a  steer  three  years  old?"  or, 
"What  is  the  cost  of  good  beef?"  To  which  we  replied, 
and  the  following  contains  the  substance  of  said  reply,  with 
the  addition  of  the  animals  shown  at  Chicago,  November, 
1885. 

What  Does  Good  Beef  Cost? 

This  is  a  very  iniijortant  question,  standing  at  the  threshold  of  a 
great  specialty  in  agriculture — one  that  should  have  abundant  facts  to 
back  a  specific  answer,  as  many  millions  of  such  steers  are  marketed 
every  year;  yet  carefully  ascertained  facts  are,  by  no  means,  abun 
dant  to  prove,  accurately,  the  cost  of  such  a  steer.  The  reports  of 
our  college  experiment  farms  should  contain  the  complete  evidence 
required  for  an  answer,  but,  alas  !  these  reports  give  little  upon  this 
querfcion,  as  upon  most  other  practical  questions  in  agriculture.     That 


APPENDIX.  529 

most  devoted  English  experimenter,  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes,  has  thrown 
some  light  upon  the  cost  of  beef  production  in  England,  but  his 
evidence  bears  mostly  upon  the  cost  of  putting  on  weight  during  the 
fattening  period.  Very  strange  to  say,  that  world-renowned  Smith- 
field  show  has,  until  within  a  very  few  years,  sought  the  heaviest  beef 
animal,  rather  than  the  most  economical  beef  animal.  The  question 
of  age  was  never  considered  as  bearing  on  the  question  of  economy  of 
production.  No  report  was  ever  required  of  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion. 

But,  happily,  our  American  Fat  Stock  Show,  in  1883,  oflEered  prizes 
under  head  of  "Cost  of  Production,"  and  the  reports  of  this  show  will 
enable  us  to  prove,  pretty  conclusively,  the  cost  of  a  steer  at  three 
years  old.  It  has  always  required  the  age  of  each  animal  to  be  given, 
and  being  weighed  at  its  entrance  in  the  show,  it  is  easy  to  determine 
its  gain  per  day  from  birth.  They  began  in  1878,  at  the  first  show,  to 
illustrate  the  importance  of  early  matiiriiy  ;  and  a  proper  understand- 
ing of  the  law  of  growth,  in  proportion  to  age,  is  now  the  first  lesson 
in  the  economical  gTO%\i;h  of  animals.  It  is  a  peculiar  fact  that  farmers 
did  not  read  this  lesson,  patent  before  their  eyes  all  their  lives,  that 
the  cost  of  putting  weight  upon  an  animal  constantly  increased  as  the 
age  and  weight  of  the  animal  increased.  It  may  be  stated,  as  a  math- 
ematical proposition,  that  (all  other  things  being  equal)  every  additional 
pound  put  upon  a  young  animal  costs  more  in  food  than  the  previous 
pound  of  gro^nh.  We  are  not  now  concerned  in  explaining  the  phi- 
losophy of  this  fact  m  animal  gro\\i;h,  but  we  will  endeavor  to  show 
that  this  fact  is  unquestionable.  There  have  been  numerous  small 
experiments  to  prove  it,  but  the  most  conclusive,  because  the  most 
extensive,  are  shown  in  the  rei^orts  of  the  American  Fat  Stock  Shows 
at  Chicago.  We  yviW  give  a  mere  summary  of  these  for  the 
various  years,  all  teaching  the  same  lesson,  but  farmers  are  so  tenacious 
of  the  old  ways,  that  a  better  one  must  be  proved  beyond  possible 
dispute.  These  shows  exhibiting  fat  stock,  and  offering  prizes  for 
early  maturity,  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  animals  entered  have  all 
been  well  fed,  and  therefore  may  justly  be  compared  together. 

We  shall  give  the  niunber  of  animals  of  each  class  —  average  age  in 
days,  average  weight,  and  gain  per  day,  and  we  give  every  show,  thus 
proving  the  result  not  to  be  exceptional : 
23 


530 


FEEDING    ANIMALS. 


No.  of  Animals* 

1878—  4  steers . . . 

4  steers  .., 
10  steers... 

1879—  5  steers  . , . 

5  steers 

6  steers  — 

1880—  C  steers... 
10  stivers 

8  steers. .  . . 

1881—  3  steers..  . 
8  steers  . . 
8  steers  . . . 

1882—11  steers... 

15  steers.. . . 
1883—13  steers   ... 

G2  steers 

20  steers  . . . 

10  steers. . . . 
1884—10  steers.... 

28  steers.  . . 
52  steers . . . . 

29  steers  . . . 
1885—  7  steers  . . . 

as  steers.  . .  . 
46  steers. . .. 
41  steers . . . . 


Age,  days. 


Av.  weight.    Gain  per  day. 


1272 
569 
848 

1240 
671 
917 

1293 
&31 
903 

1208 
626 

1316 
319 
594 
957 

1302 
281 
614 
963 

1312 
287 
565 
980 

1296 


16:J7 
1801 
1^49 
1481 
1869 
1403 
1678 
1756 
1365 
1423 
1702 
1483 
1956 


2152 
757 
1296 
1720 
2016 
780 
1270 
1688 
2040 


2.13 
1.74 
1.41 
2.19 
1.76 
1.45 
209 
1.8J 
1.35 
2.09 
1.58 
1.40 
2.38 
1.55 
2.52 
2.11 
1.85 
1.61 
2.70 
2.11 
1.79 
1.54 
2.71 
2.21 
1.72 
1.57 


Summary  of  Eight  Shows  According  to  Age. 


Age  Days. 

30  head 297.... 

152       "       612  ... 

145       "       943..., 

133       '••       l,28;i.... 


Average  Weight. 

780 

....   1,3:34   

I,m9 

1.9:38 


Gain  per  day, 

2.63 

2.18 

1.74 

1  51 


1st  period 297. 

2d  period 315. 

:id   period 331. 

4th  period 340. 


Gain  in  Periods. 

780 

554 , 

305. 

299. 


.2  63 
.1.76 
.   .92 

.  .87 


This  last  table,  showing  the  gain  in  periods,  gives  an  instructive 
summary  of  the  whole  matter.  All  these  large  numbers  of  steers  are 
supposed  to  have  grown  alike  through  each  period;  and  this  may 
properly  be  assumed,  since  we  give  only  averages.     The  individual  is 


APPENDIX.  53 1 

lost  in  the  aggregate;  yet  the  individual  modifies  the  averages,  and  as 
these  averages  include  the  animals  of  the  shows  of  eight  years,  the 
figures  should  be  considered  reliable. 

The  first  period  of  297  days,  each  animal  gains  780  lbs.,  or  2.63  lbs. 
per  day.  By  deducting  780  (the  gain  of  first  period)  from  1 ,334  lbs.  (the 
whole  gain  of  first  and  second  periods)  it  will  be  seen  that  the  gain  of 
the  second  period,  between  297  and  612  days,  is  over  44  per  cent,  less 
than  the  first  period,  and  the  gain  of  the  third  period  is  only  half  that 
of  the  second  period,  and  the  fourth  period  is  still  less.  It  is  thus  most 
conclusively  proved  that,  by  the  natural  law  of  animal  growth,  the 
daily  gain  decreases  as  the  age  of  the  animal  increases,  under  good 
feeding  as  well  as  under  poor  feeding. 

But  the  question  arises  whether  the  cost  of  the  gain  is  less  or  more  the 
first  year  than  the  second,  the  second  than  the  third  year — or  whether 
early  maturity  costs  less  than  late  maturity.  The  commonest  obser- 
vation must  teach  every  practical  feeder  that  a  steer,  equally  well  fed, 
will  eat  more  the  second  year  than  the  first,  and  more  the  third  year 
than  the  second.  The  reason  is  very  easy  to  find;  the  food  of  support 
is  in  proportion  to  weight,  and  this  weight  increases  with  the  age  of 
the  animal — so  the  cost  of  groui:h  must  increase  with  the  age  of  the 
animal. 

We  propose  to  prove  this  also  by  the  animals  exhibited  at  these 
American  Fat  Stock  Shows.     Under  the  head  of 

Cost  of  Production, 

prizes  were  offered,  and  in  the  years  1882  and  1883,  two  different 
breeds  and  their  grades  were  exhibited,  accompanied  by  careful 
accounts  of  the  cost  of  keep  and  care,  and  I  here  give  the  number  of 
each  breed  or  grade  exhibited  in  both  years,  together  with  cost  of  keep 
and  gain  in  three  periods. 

STEER  OR  SPAYED  HEIFER,  1  TO  12  MONTHS. 

No.  and  breed                                      Cost  of  production            Av.  weight  Cost  per 

of  animals.                                            at  12  months.                   at  12  mos.  lb els. 

4  Short-horn $54.03                            1,015  5  34 

10  Gr,  Short-horns 33.42                            1,013  3.29 

1  Hereford 23.75  TOO  3.39 

5  Gr.  Herefords 26.27  663  4.15 

Average  of  all $33.88  829  4  04 


532  DEEDING    ANIMALS. 

No.  and  breed                                     Cost  of  production  Av.  weight  Cost  per 

of  animals.                                             at  24  months.  at  24  raos.  lb. — cts. 

2  Short-horns $93.58  1,550                    6.05 

6  Gr.  Short-homs 83.81  1,654                    5.08 

1   Hereford 52.a5  1,100                    4.76 

1  Gr.  Hereford 61.61  1,370                    4.42 

Averageofall $72.84  1,418  5.05 

No.  and  breed                                     Cost  of  production  Av.  weight  Cost  per 

of  animals.                                             at  36  months.  at  36  mos.  lb. — cts. 

1  Short-horn 167.29  2.250                    7  4;i 

1  Gr.  Short-horn 186.82  2,250                    7  60 

1  Gr.  Short-horn 182.36  2,450                     7.44 

Averageofall $178.82  2,-316  7.49 

I  will  now  give  fi*om  the  secretary's  report  the  cost  of  raising  the 
heaviest  steer  to  three  years  old — Mammoth,  by  John  D.  Gillette, Elkhart, 
111.  Date  of  birth  July  10,  1880.  From  birth  to  13  months  old— value 
at  birth  .^5;  330  gallons  of  milk  at  4  cents  per  gallon,  §13.20;  2,520 
lbs.  of  shelled  corn  at  71  cents  per  100  lbs.,  .S17.89;  pasturage,  $4,87; 
expense  for  care,  $4;  weight  at  12  months  1,400  lbs.,  at  a  cost  of 
$44.96,  or  3.21  cents  per  pound.  From  12  to  24  months— 5,600  lbs.  of 
shelled  corn,  !^39.76;  pasturage,  .$12;  expense  and  care,  etc.,  $6; 
weight  at  24  months,  2,250  lbs.,  at  a  total  cost  of  ."^102.72,  or  4.56  cents 
per  pound.  From  24  to  36  months — 8,400  lbs.  of  shelled  corn,  $59.64; 
pasturage,  $15;  expense  for  care,  $9;  weight  at  36  months,  2,450 
pounds,  at  a  total  cost  of  $186.36,  or  7.60  cents  per  pound.  From  July 
10,  1883,  to  Nov.  14—127  days— 3,660  lbs.  of  shelled  corn,  S23.85; 
pasturage,  $5.20;  expense  for  care,  ,?3.12;  cost  of  127  days  keep,  $32.17; 
weight  at  1,222  days  old,  2,445  lbs.,  at  a  total  cost  of  $218.53,  or  8.98 
cents  per  pound. 

It  will  be  noted  that  this  steer  made  a  remarkable  gain  up  to  24 
months.  The  first  12  months  he  gained  1,400  lbs.,  or  3.81  lbs.  per  day 
— the  2d  12  months  he  gained  850  lbs.,  or  2.33  lbs.  per  day,  and  for  the 
two  years  gained  2,250  lbs.,  or  3.08  lbs.  per  day;  but  the  3d  year  gained 
only  200  lbs. ,  or  0.55  lb.  per  day.  The  gain  the  1st  year  cost  3.21 
cents  per  lb.;  2d  year  6.79  cents  per  lb.,  or  more  than  double  the  1st 
year;  3d  year  200  lbs.  gain  cost  $83.64,  or  41.82  cents  i)er  lb.  At  24 
months  he  would  have  paid  $44.28  profit,  but  at  the  end  of  the  3d  year 
he  made  a  loss  of  $89.36. 


APPENDIX.  033 

King  of  the  West  (Short- Horn),  fed  by  H.  &  I.  GrofiE,  of  Elmira, 
Canada,  also  Canadian  Champion,  bred  by  the  same  firm,  fed  together, 
cost  practically  the  same,  and  gained  alike.  At  12  months  each  of 
these  weighed  1,000  lbs.,  and  cost  S'34.67,  or  3.47  cents  per  lb.;  2d 
12  months  gained  600,  at  a  cost  of  $52.13,  or  8.68  cents  per  lb.,  whole 
cost  at  24  months  $86.80,  or  5.42  cents  per  lb.;  3d  12  months  gained 
650  lbs.,  at  a  cost  of  $81.50,  or  12.54  cents  per  lb.,  total  cost  at  3  years, 
$168.30  per  head,  or  7.48  cents  per  lb.  Each  was  worth  more  than  he 
cost  at  the  end  of  the  second  year,  but  less  than  he  cost  at  the  end  of 
the  third  year.  The  gain  the  second  year  cost  twice  as  much  as  the 
first  year,  and  the  third  year  cost  50  per  cent,  more  than  the  second, 
and  three  times  as  much  as  the  first.  These  three  well-fed  steers 
show  that  the  best  live  weight  can  be  produced  at  one  year  at  3i  cents 
per  lb. ;  at  two  years  at  5^  cents  per  lb. ;  at  three  years  at  7|  cents  per 
lb.  But  20  steers  show  a  cost  of  4.04  cents  per  lb.  at  12  months,  and 
5.05  cents  per  lb.  at  24  months,  and  the  average  weight  of  these  20 
steers  was  1,418  lbs.,  a  good  market  weight. 

If,  then,  good  beef  can  be  produced  at  24  mouths,  we  must  consider 
this  the  limit  of  profitable  production,  since  a  year  later  these  same 
cattle  cost  50  per  cent,  more  per  pound.  We  do  not  need,  therefore, 
to  consider  the  cost  of  the  third  year  to  determine  the  cost  of  good  beef. 
Let  us  go  back  to  our  tables,  and  we  find  152  head,  with  an  average 
age  of  612  days,  having  an  average  weight  of  1,334  pounds.  This  also 
meets  the  requirements  of  the  market,  as  to  weight,  at  a  little  less 
than  21  months  old,  and  at  this  age  beef  can  be  produced  at  4^  cents 
per  pound.  We  do  not  now  know  how  low  good  beef  may  be  produced, 
since  feeding,  as  a  skilled  art,  is  very  little  understood. 

Mr.  Gillette,  the  feeder  of  Mammoth,  is  one  of  the  most  intelligent 
and  successful  in  all  the  West,  and  yet  he  reports  this  steer  as  eating 
8,400  pounds  of  shelled  corn  in  his  third  year,  besides  $15  worth  of 
pasture.  This  is  23  pounds  of  corn  every  day  in  the  year  ;  yet  he 
gained  only  200  pounds,  and  he  must  have  consumed  the  principal 
part  of  this  large  ration  simply  as  the  food  of  support.  One-half  of 
this  ration,  well  digested,  would  have  furnished  abundant  food  of 
support.  The  shelled  corn  was  very  poorly  digested,  and  therefore  did 
not  result  in  economical  production.  We  believe  the  future  will  give 
us  beef  steers,  of  1500  to  1600  pounds  weight,  at  4  to  5  cents  pei- 


534  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

pound,  and  at  30  months  old,  and  probably  at  the  lower  figure,  this 
will  be  cheap  and  excellent  beef.  The  practical  question  of  the  most 
economical  beef  production  is,  as  yet,  in  its  infancy.  There  has  been 
very  little  inquiry  into  the  best  combination  of  food  elements  in  the 
growth  of  animals,  and  much  careful  experimenting  is  to  be  done  in 
its  settlement,  which  will  be  likely  to  introduce  great  improvements 
into  our  present  system.  Shortening  the  time  of  maturing  will  be  one 
of  the  greatest,  and  our  American  Fat  Stock  Show  has  been  the 
greatest  teacher  thus  far,  and  we  have  tried  to  present  a  complete 
illustration  of  the  lesson  so  far  taught.  We  hope  it  may  be  studied 
and  heeded. 

A  Few  Definitions. 

In  the  body  of  this  work  the  terms  albuminoids  and  carbohydrates 
are  frequently  used  in  explaining  the  quality  of  foods — on  page  30  and 
following,  we  show  the  complete  composition  of  fodder  vegetables. 
But  for  those  who  have  never  studied  chemistry  we  will  explain  the 
use  of  these  different  parts  of  foods. 

Albuminoids  make  or  grow  muscle  in  animals,  and  foods  rich  in 
albuminoids  are  also  rich  in  phosphate  of  lime  to  grow  the  bones  —  so 
that  such  foods  grow  the  muscles  and  frame  of  young  animals  —  such 
as  oil-meal,  pea-meal,  wheat,  bran,  oats,  clover  hay,  etc. 

Carbohydrates  are  composed  of  carbon  and  water  —  this  part  of 
foods  produces  animal  heat  and  makes  fat  —  starch,  gum,  sugar, 
woody  fiber  and  all  the  vegetable  oils  are  composed  of  carbohydrates. 
Nine-tenths  of  the  value  of  straw,  ripe  corn-stalks,  etc. ,  is  in  their 
carbohydrates. 


appendix.  ,  535 

Building  Stables  under  Old  Bakns. 
A  stable  in  a  wooden  barn  should  always  be  in  a  base- 
ment under:  first,  because  the  liquids  of  the  stable  are 
constantly  rotting  the  woodwork  of  the  barn,  and  by  plac- 
ing the  stable  under  the  barn  this  loss  is  avoided;  second, 
because,  by  building  a  concrete  wall  under  a  barn,  the  stable 
is  cheaply  and  permanently  made  warm.  The  old  barn  may 
be  raised  with  screws  on  blockings  as  high  as  is  required 
to  make  a  roomy  and  pleasant  stable,  for  low  stables  are 
disagreeable  to  man  or  beast.  It  should  be  8  feet  in  height. 
This  gives  head  room  for  both  horses  and  cattle.  It  is  not 
well  to  go  down  much  into  the  ground,  because  a  stable 
should  be  dry  and  airy,  as  well  as  warm.  The  floor  of  the 
stable  should  not  be  more  than  18  to  24  inches  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  never  below  complete  drainage 
— for  a  damp  or  wet  stable  is  unhealthy  for  animals.  When 
the  barn  is  raised  to  the  proper  height  and  level  on  its 
blockings  (let  pains  be  taken  to  have  it  level),  then  place 
shores  of  3x4  scantling  plumb  under  the  center  of  the  sill, 
near  enough  together  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  barn,  but 
be  careful  not  to  place  a  shore  in  the  way  of  a  window  or 
door  to  be  put  in  (and  the  places  for  these  should  be 
marked).  When  the  shores  are  all  placed,  with  a  flat  stone 
or  piece  of  plank  under  each  one  to  keep  it  from  settling 
before  the  wall  is  built,  then  set  two  long  poles  or  shores  on 
each  side  of  the  barn,  slanting  from  the  ground  high  up  on 
the  side,  fastening  each  to  the  barn  and  the  ground,  so  they 
cannot  move.  These  long  shores  will  hold  the  barn  in  a 
perpendicular  position  while  the  wall  is  being  built.  Four 
short  shores  should  be  set  also  slanting  against  the  sills  to 
keep  those  in  position.  The  blockings  on  which  the  barn 
has  been  raised  will  now  be  taken  out,  and  everything  is 
ready  for  placing  the 


536  ,  feeding  animals. 

Boxing  for  Concrete  Wall. 

If  the  barn  be  the  common  size,  30x40  feet,  then  10  inches 
is  thick  enough  for  the  wall.  A  row  of  standards  (3x4 
scantling)  are  set  perpendicularly,  IJ-  inches  outside  of  the 
sill,  about  8  feet  apart,  fastened  at  the  top  to  a  block  on  the 
eill.  The  inside  standards  then  will  be  set  13  inches  from 
the  outside  ones.  The  boxing  plank  will  be  1|-  inch  thick, 
12  or  14  inches  wide,  and  long  enough  to  take  3  stan- 
dards. It  will  be  seen  that  when  these  planks  are  placed 
inside  the  standards,  they  will  form  a  box  10  inches  wide^ 
giving  a  wall  10  inches  thick — that  is,  the  standards  are 
placed  three  inches  further  apart  than  the  wall  is  to  be 
thick,  to  give  room  for  the  boxing  planks.  This  leaves  the 
shores,  placed  under  the  center  of  the  sill  to  hold  the  barn 
up,  in  the  center  of  the  boxing,  so  that  these  shores  will  be 
built  around,  and  left  in  the  center  of  the  wall.  They  are 
not  in  the  way  in  putting  in  the  concrete,  as  this  forms 
around  them.  But  to  build  an  ordinary  stone  wall,  these 
shores  would  be  greatly  in  the  way.  They  do  not  decrease 
the  strength  of  the  wall,  even  when  they  rot.  The  win- 
dow frames  and  door  frames  are  made  with  jambs  as  wide 
as  the  wall  is  thick,  and  the  window  frames  are  set  into  the 
boxes  so  as  to  come  up  under  the  sill,  and  the  concrete 
filled  against  them. 

If  the  barn  should  be  much  larger,  say  40x60  feet,  then 
the  concrete  wall  should  be  14  inches  thick  at  bottom  and 
10  inches  at  the  top,  and  the  standards  placed  accordingly^ 
If  the  reader  will  turn  back  to  page  110,  he  will  find  direc- 
tions for  mixing  and  laying  the  concrete.  If  the  materials 
are  all  convenient,  the  30x40  foot  barn  can  be  raised,  and 
wall  put  under  for  $75.  A  40x60  can  be  raised  and  walled 
for  $160.   If  the  farmer  does  his  own  labor,  the  cost  will  be 


APPENDIX.  537 

only  for  lime  and  lumber.  In  many  cases  the  saving  of 
food  by  a  warm  stable  would  pay  the  whole  expense  in  one 
winter.  Care  should  be  taken  to  give  plenty  of  light.  A 
stable  should  be  as  light  as  the  living  room  of  a  house. 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that  in  raising  an  old  barn 
and  putting  under  a  basement  stable,  this  stable  will  be 
new,  and  may  be  as  warm  and  convenient  as  a  stable  of  the 
same  size  under  a  new  barn.  There  really  can  be  no  ex- 
cuse for  not  putting  such  an  improved  stable  under  an  old 
barn,  as  the  cost  is  so  small,  and  the  old  barn  may  then  be 
used  wholly  for  fodder. 

Improvement  of  Dairy  Cows  for  Butter. 

The  matter  under  this  head  is  made  up  by  condensing 
and  amending  several  articles  written  by  the  author  for 
the  National  Live  Stock  Journal. 

The  Jersey  breeders  seem  to  be  the  most  enterprising  in  developing 
their  breed  for  the  specialty  for  which  it  is  recommended.  Since  they 
saw  that  largo  butter  yields  were  of  vastly  more  account  to  give  celeb- 
rity and  value  to  their  cows  than  the  possession  of  all  the  fancy  points, 
they  have  discussed  fancy  less,  but  kept  a  sharp  eye  on  performance. 
This  was  a  wise  departure.  Cattle  breeders  have  been  quite  too  intent 
upon  trivial  points,  which  tickle  the  fancy,  but  have  very  little  to  do 
with  real  value. 

And  now,  when  the  Jersey  breeders  begin  the  real  improvement,  it 
is  not  surprisng  that  they  should  make  many  mistakes  in  what  they 
thought  every  farmer  knew  all  about — feeding.  They  do  know  corn, 
oats,  barley,  peas,  oil-meal,  etc.,  from'  each  other;  but  what  do  they 
know  of  the  peculiar  and  distinguishing  characteristics  of  each  ?  They 
have  had  no  time  to  study  the  mere  matter  of  foods  which  they  had 
handled  all  their  lives.  But  now  that  these  Jersey  breeders  are  get- 
ting their  eyes  open  to  the  importance  of  knowing  the  practical  quality 
of  foods,  it  is  necessary  that  they  should  know  not  only  the  quality  of 
foods,  but  the  constitutions  of  their  cows,  and  how  far  and  how  fast 
their  rations  may  be  safely  increased.  This  latter  point  is  the  one  on 
which  they  have    made  their  principal  mistakes,   and  we  have  the 


538  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

broadest  charity  for  them  when  we  consider  that  the  German  profes- 
sors tried  to  change  the  chemical  composition  of  milk  by  feeding  cows 
for  fourteen  days,  and,  because  they  did  not  succeed,  reported  that  the 
composition  of  milk  could  not  be  modified  by  special  feeding  ;  or,  in 
other  words,  that  food  had  no  influence  on  the  composition  of  milk. 
They  afterward  experimented  for  thirty  days,  and  reported  that  they 
had  succeeded  in  increasing  the  proportion  of  fat  to  a  small  extent. 
Even  these  professors,  with  all  their  erudition,  did  not  comprehend  that 
an  animal  with  fixed  characteristics  must  require  a  long  time  to  change, 
essentially,  these  characteristics.  Some  Jersey  breeders  have  lately 
asserted  that  some  cows  are  quite  unsusceptible  to  any  material  im- 
provement in  their  butter  production.  They  have  come  to  this  con- 
clusion from  unsuccessful  attempts  to  increase  the  yield  of  butter  by 
feeding  extra  rations  for  a  short  time. 

If  these  breeders  would  stop  to  reason  a  moment  on  this  point,  they 
would  ask  themselves,  what  special  value  the  Jersey  breed  would  have 
if  its  capacity  for  butter  production  could  be  materially  changed  in  a 
few  days  ?  If  that  were  the  case,  a  new  breed  could  be  made  in  two 
weeks,  and  breeds  would  have  no  substantial  value.  No;  these  changes 
and  improvements  must  be  of  slow-  growth  on  a  breed  that  has  been 
more  than  two  hundred  years  in  fixing  its  characteristics.  The  legend 
of  the  man  who  lifted  the  calf  every  day  till  it  became  an  ox,  and  was 
able  to  increase  his  strength  as  fast  as  the  calf  grew,  may  be  said  to 
illustrate  the  procedure  in  developing  the  butter  cow.  She  should  not 
be  crowded  rapidly  in  her  rations.  The  object  should  be  to  slowly  de- 
velop her  digestive  capacity  without  clogging  her  organs,  and  thus,  by 
richer  alimentation,  to  produce  a  gradual  increase  in  the  secretion  of 
rich  milk,  and  therefore  in  butter.  Some  cows  are  much  more  sus- 
ceptible to  better  feeding  than  others.  Their  digestive  capacity  is 
greater  than  the  ration  they  have  had,  and  they  easily  carry  a  consid- 
erable addition,  which  soon  tells  upon  their  production.  It  is  a  decid- 
ed error  to  suppose  that  all  cows  which  have  had  only  common  rations 
are  not  susceptible  to  improvement  from  better  feeding,  yet  those 
with  very  limited  digestive  capacity  must  be  managed  accordingly. 
The  increase  in  food  should  begin  very  small,  with  a  Httle  advance 
every  week,  often  changing  the  kind  of  food  to  improve  the  appe- 
tite.     This  is  all  preparatory,  but  it  will,    in  nineteen  cases  out  of 


AI»PENDIX.  §39 

twenty,  be  found  that  the  increase  in  food  will  increase  the  production 
in  due  proportion.  We  have  taken  the  most  ordinary  scrub  cows  and 
added  seventy-five  per  cent,  to  their  production  of  milk  in  two  years 
— the  first  six  months  showing  only  a  slight  increase  in  production,  the 
largest  part  being  appHed  to  improving  condition — and  at  the  same 
time  reducing  the  pounds  of  milk  required  for  a  pound  of  butter  thirty- 
five  per  cent.  To  make  it  most  convincing,  we  selected  cows  below 
the  average  to  experiment  upon.  We  therefore  concluded,  when  any 
one  asserted  that  common  cows  could  not  be  improved  in  milk  and 
butter  production,  that  he  had  expected  to  accomplish  his  desired  im- 
provement in  a  few  weeks.  But  we  do  not  advise  attempting  to  im- 
prove the  lowest  grade  of  cows  by  feeding — pass  them  to  the  butcher. 
It  is  misunderstanding  the  point  here  explained  that  has  caused  the 
contradictory  opinions  in  relation  to  the  profit  of  feeding  extra  food  to 
milch  cows  upon  pasture.  One  who  has  a  low-standard  herd  could  not 
be  expected  to  see  profit  during  the  first  few  months,  and  he  would 
declare  that  the  extra  food  was  thi-own  away,  while  another  herd  of 
more  developed  cows  would  respond  at  once,  and  decidedly  to  the  ex- 
tra feeding,  and  its  owner  be  enthusiastic  on  the  question  of  profit  in 
extra  feeding.  Shall  we,  therefore,  conclude  that  the  low-standard 
herd  would  pay  better  if  kept  on  a  low-standard  ration  ?  Certainly 
not.  They  should  either  be  sold  to  those  who  know  no  better  than  to 
buy  such  cows,  or  they  should  be  started  on  the  system  of  slow  devel- 
opment, after  disposing  of  those  8  years  old.  The  first  few  months 
time,  which  do  not  show  much  in  milk  production,  is  still  far  from  be- 
ing lost — the  condition  beginning  at  once  to  improve.  The  second 
year  this  herd  will  be  improved  from  25  to  3.")  per  cent. ,  and  ever  after 
will  pay  better,  and  much  more  than  recompense  the  cost  of  develop- 
ment. This  is  encouraging  to  the  advanced  dairyman,  for  it  shows 
him  that  he  may  profitably  develop  his  average  and  better  cows  to  a 
high  standard,  and  long  enjoy  the  fruit  of  his  labor,  for  it  is  to  be  re- 
membered that  a  fixed  characteristic,  such  as  a  large  milk  secretion, 
is  hereditary,  to  a  large  extent,  even  in  our  cows  of  mixed  blood,  so 
that  after  developing  a  herd  of  cows,  it  is  thence  comparatively  easy  to 
keep  up  a  high-standard  herd.  Now,  let  us  take  the  two  greatest  but- 
ter-producing cows  in  this  country,  and  probably  in  the  world,  to  illus- 
trate the  subject  under  discussion. 


540  FEEDING   ANIMALS. 

Effect  of  Feeding  upon  Quality  of  Milk. 

Princess  2d,  in  her  test  in  the  winter  of  1884,  gave  315  lbs.  of  milk 
and  made  27  lbs.  10  oz.  of  butter  in  7  days.  This  required  11.4  lbs.  of 
milk  to  1  lb.  of  butter.  In  her  test  one  year  afterward  (1885),  she  gave 
299^  lbs.  of  milk,  and  made  46  lbs.  12i  oz.  of  butter.  This  was  a 
pound  of  butter  to  6.4  lbs.  of  milk.  Here  was  a  gain  of  44  per  cent, 
in  richness  of  milk  in  one  year  by  constant  feeding.  And  another  re- 
markable fact  is,  that  she  made  46  lbs.  12^  oz.  of  butter  from  50  per 
cent,  less  grain  food  than  she  ate  the  year  before  to  make  27  lbs.  10 
oz.  of  butter.  This  clearly  proved  that  she  had  been  overfed  at  the 
first  test.  They  pushed  her  on  feed  injudiciously.  She  was  fed  more 
than  she  could  assimilate,  and  it  simply  clogged  her  system  and  en- 
riched the  manure  pile.  This  is  a  most  important  explanation  of  what 
appeared  to  be  a  contradiction  of  the  principles  of  feeding — viz :  that  the 
cost  in  food  of  a  large  yield  costs  more  proportionately  than  a  small 
yield — her  food  was  not  all  used  for  production  of  milk  and  butter,  but 
was  simply  wasted. 

Mary  Anne  of  St.  Lambert,  in  a  test  September,  1883,  gave  251  lbs. 
of  milk,  and  made  27  lbs.  9^  oz.  of  butter.  This  was  1  lb.  of  butter 
from  9.10  lbs.  of  milk.  In  her  last  test,  September,  1884,  she  gave 
245  lbs.  milk,  and  made  36  lbs.  121-  oz.  of  butter,  being  1  lb.  of  butter 
to  6.66  lbs.  of  milk.  Here  is  a  gain  in  richness  of  27  per  cent,  in  one 
year.  But  in  reverse  of  Princess  2d,  she  consumed  about  50  per  cent, 
more  grain  food  than  the  year  before.  It  may  be  possible  that  she 
needed  this  increase  of  food,  but  she  ate  as  much  food  as  Princess  2d, 
at  her  second  test,  who  made  ten  pounds  more  butter.  If  full  credit 
is  given  these  tests,  this  remarkable  change  in  the  richness  of  the  milk, 
as  a  result  of  special  feeding,  would  not  seem  to  leave  any  possible 
standing  for  the  German  experiments.  Those  experiments  were  based 
upon  too  short  a  period  of  time. 

Is  THE  Greatest  Yield  the  Cheapest  'i 
As  we  have  often  insisted,  an  increase  in  butter  production  must  re- 
sult in  production  at  less  cost.  But  if  we  could  suppose  that  a  strain 
of  blood  might  be  developed  of  cows  that  would  give  milk  for  the  pro- 
duction of  40  lbs.  of  butter  per  week,  and  that  the  butter  costs  more 
per  pound  than  that  produced  from  cows  yielding  8  lbs.  per  week, 


APPENDIX.  541 

would  such  40-lb.  cows  be  desirable  ?  Will  dairymen  invest  in  cows 
that  reduce  their  profits  instead  of  increasing  them  i  There  seems  to 
have  been  no  serious  attention  paid  to  the  cost  of  food  in  these  butter 
tests,  and  no  attention  paid  to  the  comparative  cost  of  the  butter,  but 
beating  all  other  competitors  is  the  one  thing  considered.  In  some  of 
the  most  remarkable  tests,  the  food  is  apparently  accurately  reported  ; 
but  if  really  accurate,  the  cost  of  food  alone  is  more  than  the  market 
value  of  the  butter  produced.  The  Short-horn  is  the  model  beef  breed, 
but  if  it  cost  more  per  pound  to  grow  a  Short-horn  steer  to  1,500  lbs, 
weight  than  to  grow  a  scrub  to  the  same  weight  and  condition,  would 
anybody  want  the  Short-horn  i  The  argument  and  the  fact  is,  that  it 
takes  from  25  to  50  per  cent,  less  food  to  grow  the  Short-horn  than 
the  scrub.  But  does  it  take  less  food,  per  pound  of  butter,  to  produce 
27  to  46  lbs.  per  week  from  these  remarkable  cows  than  to  produce  8  to  ' 
16  lbs.  from  the  latter  class  of  cows  ?  This  is  a  legitimate  question, 
and  must  be  answered,  and  upon  the  true  answer  will  the  popular  es- 
timate of  developing  cows  rest.  The  great  effort  now  is  to  get  ahead 
on  the  production  of  butter,  and  there  seems  very  little  consideration 
given  to  rational  feeding  or  the  question  of  cost.  Let  us  see  what 
light,  if  any,  the  reports  throw  on  the  question  of  cost.  But  first  let  us 
say  that  we  do  not  believe  that  the  largest  production  will  cost  more 
or  as  much  as  the  smaller,  when  the  feeding  is  conducted  upon  sound 
principles. 

To  illustrate  this  question  of  food  and  production,  we  will  take  the 
two  cows  that  have  been  alternately  at  the  head.  First,  Mary  Anne 
of  St.  Lambert,  9770,  distanced  all  competitors,  Sept.  23  to  29,  1883, 
by  making  in  seven  days,  from  251  lbs.  of  milk,  27  lbs.  9^^  oz.  of  but- 
ter. Her  ration  was:  14  lbs.  oatmeal,  14  lbs.  pea  meal,  7  lbs.  oil  meal 
and  pasture.  This  would  cost  in  Canada  about  50  cents  per  day  or 
about  13  cents  per  pound — a  reasonable  cost. 

Next  comes  Princess  2d,  8046,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  winter  of 
1884,  winning  by  a  nose  in  producing  from  315  lbs.  of  milk  27  lbs.  10 
oz.  butter  in  seven  days;  but  her  ration  was  the  most  extraordinary 
ever  yet  reported,  as  follows:  35  lbs.  clover  hay,  48  lbs.  mixed  bran, 
12  lbs.  oat  meal,  6  lbs.  corn  meal,  6  lbs.  linseed  meal,  35  lbs.  carrots 
and  beets.  This  would  cost  near  Baltimore  .5!  1.50  per  day,  or  37^  cents 
per  pound,  or  more  than  its  value  in  market. 


542  FEEDING    AJ^tMAtd. 

Then  comes  to  the  rescue  of  the  record  again  Mary  Anne  of  St.  Lam- 
bert, Sept.  23  to  30,  1884,  producing  245  lbs.  of  milk,  from  which  was 
made  36  lbs.  12|-  oz.  of  butter.  This  was  such  a  leap  ahead  that 
most  people  thought  she  would  never  be  surpassed.  Her  ration  was: 
25  lbs.  oat  meal,  17  lbs.  pea  meal,  6  lbs.  oil  meal,  2  lbs.  bran,  in  all  50 
lbs.  and  pasture.  This  could  not  cost  in  Canada  less  than  65  cents  per 
day,  or  13  cents  per  pound. 

But,  alas,  for  all  human  triumphs!  The  owner  of  Princess  2d  saw 
the  situation,  and  from  February  22d  to  March  1st,  1885,  she  came  to 
the  front  with  a  bound  and  passed  Mary  Anne  by  10  full  pounds. 
From  299i  lbs.  of  milk  she  made  46  lbs.  12|  oz.  of  butter.  Her  ration 
was:  22  qts.  oat  meal,  22  lbs.;  15  qts.  pea  meal,  23  lbs.;  2  qts.  linseed 
meal,  4  lbs.;  1  qt.  meal,  1  lb: — 50  lbs.  in  all — besides  hay,  carrots 
and  beets.  This  would  cost  in  that  locality  $1  per  day,  or  15  cents  per 
pound,  or  less  than  half  the  cost  per  pound  of  the  first  test. 

Let  us  examine  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  those  two  records.  In 
the  first  place,  it  will  be  seen  that  Mary  Anne,  in  her  first  test  made 
the  same  amount  of  butter  (only  f  oz.  less)  as  Princess  2d,  on  one-half 
of  her  food.  Then,  more  remarkable  still.  Princess  2d's  last  marvel- 
ous increase  of  over  19  lbs.  of  butter  in  one  week,  above  her  first  test, 
was  made  on  two-thirds  the  food  of  the  first  test.  That  is,  she  made 
46  lbs.  12^  oz.  of  butter  on  one-third  less  food  than  she  required  to 
make  27  lbs.  10  oz.  of  butter.  What  do  these  contradictions  prove  ? 
except  that  the  feeding  was  done  very  injudiciously — the  same  amount 
of  food  producing  twice  the  product  from  the  same  cow  at  one  time  as 
at  another.  This  shows  the  importance  of  studying  this  feeding  prob- 
lem, and  the  great  importance  of  accurately  reporting  the  exact  ration 
fed  at  every  test.  The  largest  rations  were  greater  than  any  cow,  at 
first,  can  possibly  utilize,  and  the  excess  only  lessens  production. 

Now,  let  us  compare  these  great  yields  with  the  more  moderate 
ones. 

The  Jersey  cow,  Lesbie  9179,  was  lately  tested  for  7  days ;  from 
187i  lbs.  of  milk  she  made  16  lbs.  3  oz.  of  butter:  Her  ration  was 
6  lbs.  corn  meal,  3  lbs.  oil-meal,  and  3  lbs.  bran,  or  12  lbs.  grain,  with 
a  few  roots  and  clover  hay.  This  was  only  one-fourth  the  grain  ration 
of  Princess  2d  or  Mary  Anne  of  St.  Lambert.  If  Princess  2d's  food  for 
one  week  were  fed  to  this  Lesbie,  she  would  have  made  from  it,  at 


APPENDIX.  543 

least  50  lbs.  of  butter  ;  thus,  with  the  same  food  she  would  beat  either 
Princess  2d  or  Mary  Anue,  and  the  largest  yield  of  butter  for  a  given 
amount  of  food  or  cost  is  the  object  sought. 

2d.  Miss  Willie  Jones  6918— May  21,  1883—7  days,  316  lbs.  of  milk, 
16  lbs.  4  oz,  butter;  ration,  6  lbs.  corn  meal,  3  lbs.  bran  and  pasture. 

3d.  Alfleda  6744— August  19  to  26,  1883— milk  250  lbs.,  butter  16 
lbs.  4  oz.;  ration,  4|^  lbs.  corn  meal,  5  lbs.  bran,  pasture,  short  after- 
math of  clover  and  timothy. 

4th.  Maggie  of  St.  Lambert  9776— April  1  to  6,  1883— milk  278 lbs; 
butter  16  lbs.  3  oz.;  ration,  8  lbs.  meal,  4  lbs.  of  bran,  1  peck  of  car- 
rots and  hay. 

5th.  Gold  Trinket  9518— July  13  to  19,  1882— mUk  240  lbs.,  butter 
16  lbs.  2  oz.;  ration,  3  lbs.  corn  meal,  3  lbs.  bran,  1^  lbs.  oil-meal, 
pasture. 

6th.  Fear  Not  2d  661— June  3  to  9,  1882— milk  216  lbs.,  butter  16 
lbs.  2  oz.;  ration,  4  lbs.  corn  meal,  6  lbs.  middlings,  pasture. 

7th.  Moth  of  St.  Lambert  9775— June  13  to  19,  1883— milk  235  lbs. , 
butter  16  lbs.  2  oz. ;  ration,  4  lbs.  barley  meal,  old  pasture. 

8th.  Com  10504— June  4  to  10,  1883— butter  16  lbs.  2  oz. ;  ration, 
good  blue  grass  and  white  clover  pasture  only. 

9th.  Oiies'  Lady  Teazle  12307— July  1  to  7,  1883— milk  275  lbs., 
butter  16  lbs.  5  oz. ;  ration,  blue  grass  pasture  alone. 

10th.  Belle  of  Patterson  5664— June  5  to  11,  1882,  5  months  after 
calving — milk  241  lbs.,  butter  16  lbs.  6  oz.;  ration,  pasture  only. 

We  have  here  given  ten  examples  of  Jersey  cows  that  produce  a 
pound  of  butter  at  less  than  one-half  the  quantity  of  food  of  either 
Princess  2d  or  Mary  Anne  of  St.  Lambert,  taking  the  reports  of  ra- 
tions as  given.  This,  however,  was  not  the  fault  of  these  wonderful 
cows,  but  of  crowding  down  more  food  than  they  could  possibly  use  in 
production. 

We  will  here  add  an  analysis  of  the  rations  of  Princess  2d,  Mary 
Anne  of  St,  Lambert,  and  Lesbie. 

Analyzed  Eations. 

It  is  certainly  important  that  the  ration  required  to  produce  these 
large  yields  should  be  so  given,  that  people  may  be  able  to  judge  cor- 
rectly of  the  economy  of  such  feeding.     On  philosophical  principles, 


514 


Feeding  animals. 


the  larger  the  yield  the  cheaper  the  cost  of  production,  because  the  food 
of  support  is  the  same  whether  production  is  large  or  small,  or  no  pro- 
duction; so  that  all  that  a  cow  can  eat,  digest,  and  assimilate  beyond 
that  goes  to  production.  The  weight  of  Princess  2d  has  since  been  given 
at  1,050  lbs.  This  ration  is  so  remarkable  for  quantity  of  food,  that 
we  give  the  items  separately,  and  analyze  each,  giving  the  dry  matter 
and  the  digestible  elements  of  each,  so  that  it  can  be  clearly  understood 
how  much  nutriment  it  took  to  produce  4  lbs.  of  butter  per  day. 
Daily  Ration  of  Princess  2d  (8046)  During  her  First  Seven  Days 

Butter  Test,  1884. 


Q 

Digest 

ble  nutrients. 

KIND  OF  FOOD. 

< 

Is 

•£2 

i 

35  lbs.  clover  hay 

48  lbs.  mixed  bran 

12  lbs.  oat  meal 

tj  lbs.  corn  meal 

6  lbs.  linseed  meal 

Lb.s. 
29.40 
42.31 
10.29 
5.14 
5.4G 
5.25 

Lbs. 
2.27 
4.27 
1.08 
0.50 
1.65 
0.49 

Lbs. 
13.37 
24.79 
5.19 
3.62 
1.64 
4.37 

Lb.s. 
0.59 
1.36 
0.56 
0.29 
0.02 

35  lbs.  carrots 

0.07 

German  standard  ration  for  1000-lb.  cows  in  milk. . 

97-88 
24.00 

10.26 
2.50 

52.98 
12.50 

3.49 
0.40 

Her  Second  Test,  1885. 


20  lbs.  clover  hay 16.70 

30  lbs.  carrots 4. 53 

22  lbs.  oat  meal 18.86 

23  lbs.  pea  meal 19.71 

4  lbs.  oil  meal    3 .  63 

lib.  bran .88 


64.31 


1.70 

7.M 

.34 

.42 

3.72 

.06 

1.98 

9.52 

1.03 

4  64 

12.53 

.39 

1.10 

1.08 

.41 

.10 

.48 

.03 

2.26 


Daily  Ration  of  Mary  Anne  of  St.  Lambert  at  her  First  Test 
September,  1883. 


14  lbs.  oat  meal 12.00 

14  lbs.  pea  meal 12.00 

7  lbs.  oil  meal   6.42 

And  pasture. 

30.42 


1.26 

6.36 

0.65 

2.82 

7.61 

.2i 

1.93 

1.39 

.72 

6.01 


15.36 


APPENDIX.  545 

Ration  at  Second  Test  of  Mary  Anne,  Sept.  1884. 

25  lbs.  oat  meal 21 .  43  2  2.5  10  76  1  1  ~ 

17  lbs.  pea  meal 14. .57  3^48  j)  24  28 

61bs.  oilmeal 5.4.5  1.05  j  go  62 

21bs.bran 1.77  0.20  0.97  '06 

And  pasture.  _J 

43.22  7.53  22.5;)  2.13 

Ration  of  the  Jersey  Cow,  Lesbie  (9179). 

18  lbs.  clover  hay 15.03  1.53  6.87  .30 

6  lbs.  corn  meal 5.14  .50  3.62  .29 

3  lbs.  oil  meal 2.73  1.65  1.64  .62 

3  lbs.  bran 2.(Jo  .30  1.45  .09 

16  lbs.  carrots 2.40  .22  2.00  .03 

27.95  4.20  15  58  1^ 

This  table  will  show  how  extraordinary  a  ration  this  cow.  Princess 
2d,  is  said  to  have  eaten  every  day  for  a  week  at  her  first  test.  We 
give  the  German  standard  ration,  for  a  cow  of  her  weight,  under  it. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  dry  organic  matter  is  four  times  the  standard; 
the  albuminoids,  or  nitrogenous  matter,  over  four  times;  the  carbohy 
drates  (starch,  gum,  sugar,  etc.),  more  than  four  times  as  much,  and 
the  fat  over  eight  times  as  much  as  the  standard  ration. 

Let  us  test  this  in  another  manner.  This  cow  gave  an  average  of  4.) 
lbs.  of  milk  per  day.  It  would  require  of  albuminoids  to  form  the  case- 
ine  in  this  milk,  1.80  lbs.,  but  her  ration  contained  10.26  lbs.,  or  nearly 
six  times  as  much  as  required.  She  made  4  lbs.  of  butter.  All  butter 
has  more  or  less  water — fresh  butter  at  least  15  per  cent.  If  we  de- 
duct this  water,  it  leaves  3.40  lbs.  of  pure  butter.  If  we  examine  the 
ration,  we  find  3.49  lbs.  of  pure  fat — this  alone  was  quite  enough  to 
form  her  large  yield  of  butter — and  then  we  have  52.98  lbs,  of  digesti- 
ble carbohydrates,  and  the  extra  starch,  sugar,  etc.  of  this  was  abund- 
ant, besides  keeping  up  animal  heat,  &c. ,  to  have  formed  6  lbs.  more 
of  butter.  So  that  if  this  cow  could  really  eat,  digest,  and  assimilate 
this  amount  of  food,  she  should  have  yielded  more  than  twice  as  much 
butter  as  she  did. 

Again,  let  us  suppose  that  this  cow  requires  this  amount  of  food  to 
produce  4  lbs.  of  butter,  what  then  is  her  value  i  But  let  us  examine  the 
ration  of  Princess  2d,  at  her  second  test.  The  food  of  this  ration  was 
35  per  cent,  less  than  that  of  her  first  test,  and  she  produced  69  per. 


546  FEEDING    ANIMALS. 

cent,  more  butter  from  this  35  per  cent,  less  food — or  stated  concisely 
— her  second  ration  was  153  per  cent,  more  productive  than  her  first 
ration,  showing  in  the  latter  an  utter  disregard  of  all  principles  of 
cause  and  effect  in  feeding. 

If  we  examine  the  first  ration  of  Mary  Anne  of  St.  Lambert,  we 
find  that  its  food  elements  were  n6t  more  than  40  per  cent,  of  Prin- 
cess 2d's  first  ration,  although  the  product  was  practically  the  same. 
But  her  second  ration  showed  a  considerable  increase,  yet  not  dispro- 
portioned  to  her  increased  production.  Her  increased  production  was 
about  33  per  cent.,  which  was  very  nearly  the  increase  of  food. 
Mary  Anne's  rations  and  Princess  2d's  last  ration  bear  about  the  same 
relation  of  food  to  production. 

But  it  is  not  certain  that  these  latter  rations  were  as  productive  as 
they  might  have  been.  This  is  seen  in  the  ration  of  Lesbie  (9179). 
This  cow's  ration  of  hay  is  estimated,  as  the  amount  of  it  and  the 
carrots  are  not  given.  If  we  take  her  grain  ration,  it  becomes  quite 
evident  that  she  produced  more  product  in  proportion  to  food  than 
either  Princess  2d  or  Mary  Anne. 

The  point  that  every  feeder  should  carefully  study  is  to  have  the 
ration  proportioned  to  his  expected  product.  Food  should  not  be 
given  at  random,  as  many  of  the  testers  of  butter  cows  have  done, 
but  a  calculation  should  be  made  as  to  the  product  which  such  a  ration 
should  bring,  and  the  cow  should  become  accustomed  to  the  increased 
alimentation  by  careful  testing  of  her  powers  of  digestion  and  assimi- 
lation. 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX. 


Acorns,  composition,  157. 

Almond  cake,  composition,  158. 

American  Ensilage  in  England,  502; 
important  statements  by  Prof.  Augus- 
tus Voelcker,  502,  506. 

Analyses—  Bones,  24  ;  animal  bodies,  26; 
of  fats,  23,  39  ;  grasses  and  fodder 
plants,  146-148,  153-157  ;  by-products, 
157,  158;  ensilage  and  green  foods, 
224 ;  skin,  hair,  horn,  hoof  and  wool, 
23;  milk,  138,  139;  cellulose,  39;  cow- 
manure,  345,  346  ;  sheep  manure,  416- 
420  ;  mare's  milk,  138  ;  swine'-*  milk, 
462,  463  ;  bodies  of  cattle,  sheep  and 
swine,  26-29;  of  plants,  40,  41 ;  of  ash 
in  1,000  pounds  of  milk,  139;  of  grains, 
140  ;  of  cows'  milk,  140,  141 ;  of  whey, 
243  ;  of  condimental  foods,  312-314 ;  of 
chaflF  and  hulls,  roots,  tubers,  grains 
and  fruits,  150,  157. 

Animals,  how  to  feed  young,  137. 

Animal  bodies— Analysis,  26  ;  composi- 
tion, 19,  23  ;  constituents,  24. 

Albuminoids— Animal  and  vegetable,  31, 
33. 

Amides,  32. 

Animal  heat,  72,  73. 

Alimentation,  principles  of,  126. 

Alsike  clover  and  timothy,  191. 

Apples  and  pears,  157. 

Armsby,  Dr.,  cattle  feeding,  27,  72,  75, 
373,  452. 

Baby  beef,  249-253. 

Barley— As  a  ration,  397,  398;  bran, 
composition,  157 ;  straw,  155;  sprouts, 
158. 

Barnyard  grass,  composition,  147. 


Barns— Importance  of  shelter,  84 ;  effect 
of  temperature  on  animal  growth,  84, 
85;  form  of  barn,  86;  square,  87; 
heighth  of,  87;  duo-decagon,  sex-dec- 
agon, 89 ;  octiigonal,  89, 90,  92  ;  octag- 
onal basement,  fig.  8,  91,  93,  94;  octag- 

.  onal  (circular),  fig.  9,  95,  96 ;  a  fifty- 
foot  octagon,  103;  basement  walls,  106; 
preparations  for  laying  out  a  wall,  107; 
octagonal  wall,  how  to  lay  out,  107, 
108;  constructing  boxes  for  wall,  108, 
109;  proportion  for  water-lime  con- 
crete, 110;  new  way  of  building  long 
barns,  111-113;  barn  for  1,000  head 
of  cattle,  113,  114;  octagon,  eight 
winged,  114,  115;  square-cross  barn, 
116-119;  basement  for  cattle,  119, 120; 
laying  out  the  basement,  120-122; 
sheep  barn,  122,  12:3. 

Beans,  analysis,  146. 

Beans  and  oats,  381.  382. 

Bean-meal,  as  a  ration,  .382. 

Beech-nut  cake,  composition,  158. 

Beef— Quality  of  young,  2.53,254;  cost 
of,  269-274;  what  age  for,  247;  grow- 
ing cattle  for,  275,  276 ;  to  the  acre  of 
corn,  311;  baby  beef,  249;  experi- 
ments on,  250;  law  of  growth  accord- 
ing to  age,  256 ;  the  economy  of  young, 
255;  cost  of  production,  261,  262;  En- 
glish view  of  the  cost  of.  263  ;  cost  of 
gain,  205,  266 ;  cost  of  beef,  268-273 ; 
whole  cost  of  bullock,  274. 

Beets,  fodder,  sugar,  156. 

Bermuda  grass,  composition,  147,  151. 

Biliary  ducts,  65. 

Bile,  composition  of,  165. 


548 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


Bladder,  74. 

Blood,  composition,  20,  21, 

Blue  grass,  composition,  147,  153. 

Blue  joint  grass,  147. 

Bone,  composition,  23,  24. 

Bieediiig-sows,  care  of,  461-463. 

Brewers'  grains,  163. 

Bi-onchi,  70. 

Brown  hay,  154. 

Bruises,  treatment  for,  498. 

Buckwheat  bran,  composition,  157. 

Bulky  food  for  horses,  380-384. 

By-products  as  food,  157,  158. 

Calf— Composition  of,  26  ;  young,  how 
to  feed  it,  234,  235  •.  skim-milk  ration, 
236-240  ;  cost  at  one  year,  241,  242 ; 
whey  ration  for  calf,  242-246 ;  hay-tea 
ration,  246,  247  ;  baby  beef,  249-253 ; 
quality  of  young  beef,  253,  2.54  ;  econ- 
omy of  young  beef,  255-257. 

California  brown  grass,  analysis,  147. 

Carcass— Constituents,  28;  composition, 
29  ;  proportion  of  vui'ious  parts,  27. 

Carbon,  oxidation  of,  42,  43;  excreted, 76. 

Carbo-hydrates,  34;  analysis,  39. 

Care  of  breeding- sows,  461-463. 

iJarrots,  composition,  156. 

Cattle— Number  and  value,  13;  propor- 
tion of  parts,  27. 

Cattle  Feeding,  233,  234;  how  to  feed 
the  young  calf,  234,  235;  skim-milk 
ration  for  calf,  2.36-240;  cost  of  calf  at 
one  year,  241,  2-12;  whey  ration  for 
calf,  with  table,  242-246  ;  hay-tea  ra- 
tions for  calves,  246.  247 ;  what  age 
for  beef,  247,  248  ;  baby  beef,  249-253 ; 
quality  of  young  beef,  253,  254 ;  econ- 
omy of  young  beef,  255-257 ;  experi- 
ments of  raising  calves  on  skim-milk, 
238-240;  method  of  feeding  flax-seed, 
234  ;  its  value,  236. 

Cattle— Grown  for  beef,  275,  276  ;  home- 
bred, 276,  277;  summer  feeding,  277; 
full  feeding  in  summer,  283-286 ;  full 
feeding  in  cold  weather,  287,  288 ;  out- 
door feeding,  288-291. 

Cattle  Rations— German  standard,  292, 
293:,  waste  products  in,  299-301. 

Cattle— Rack,  199;  cost  of  beef,  260. 

Cellulose,  35;  digestibility,  36. 

Chestnuts,  157. 

Chicago  fat-stock  show,  tables,  258,  259. 


Chinese  oil  bean,  157. 

Cholera,  hog,  462. 

Circulation,  67. 

Clover,  as  an  ensilage  crop,  225,  226. 

Clover  and  corn,  as  a  ration,  297,  298; 
analysis,  146,153;  white,  153;  Swedish, 
153. 

Cob-meal— For  pigs,  478,  474  ;  experi- 
ments in  feeding,  473,  474. 

Coecum,  horse,  62. 

Cold,  effect  upon  secretion  of  milk,  84  ; 
upon  fattening  cattle,  85,  86,  287. 

Colic,  treatment  for,  500. 

Collier's,  Dr.,  table  of  analyses,  146-148. 

Colon,  62. 

Colt,  362 ;  milk  ration  for,  363,  365,  395  : 
flaxseed  as  part  of  ration,  365, 396, 397; 
sweet  foods,  364  ;  change  of  food  for, 
399;  exercise  for,  370,  .371 ;  Aveightand 
growth  of  foals,  367,  368;  cost  of 
growth,  368-370;  handling  of,  367,  371, 
399. 

Composition  of  food  for  six  cows.  345. 

Condimental  foods,  analysis,  312,  314  ; 
how  to  compound,  314. 

Cooking— Cost  of  for  sheep,  456,  457; 
food  for  hogs,  481-484 ;  philosophy  of, 
487-490;  will  it  pay,  490-492;  corn 
and  stalks  together,  307. 

Concrete,  preparing  for  silo,  216-218  : 
proportions  of  water-lime  concrete, 
110;  constructing  walls  of  concrete, 
108. 

Condensed  milk,  158. 

Corn  fodder,  194;  starch  feed,  163; 
Stoweirs  evergreen,  360 ;  corn  cobs, 
156;  corn  stalks,  156. 

Corn,  running  it  through  a  cutter,  307  ; 
feeding  the  crop  without  husking, 
.305-308  ;  improper  to  feed  alone,  141- 
142. 

Corn  and  beef,  beef  to  the  acre,  311. 

Corn  ensilage,  trial  with  dry  food,  510- 
513. 

Corn-meal  for  horses,  ;J84  ;  wet  or  dry, 
385,  380  ;  for  pigs,  465-469. 

Corn  ration,  improvement  of,  310. 

Cost  of  beef,  260-274  ;  J.  Johnson's  ex- 
periments, 268,  269  ;  O.  Lewis"  experi- 
ments, 270,  271  ;  author's  experiments, 
271-273;  cost  of  whole  bullock,  273, 
274 ;  gain  in  live  weight,  265,  266. 


ANALYTICAL   IKDEX. 


549 


Cost  of  ensilage,  221,  222. 

Cotton  seed,  157. 

Cotton-seed  cake,  140,  141,  161,  162,  265, 
269,  285,  294,  301,  302,  304,  305,  310,  350, 
351,  359,  387,  389,  390,  397,  415,  420. 

Cows— Milk,  158  ;  selection  of,  318-321 ; 
food  and  size  of,  321-325  ;  experiments 
as  to  size,  324;  as  food  producers,  338, 
339. 

Cow,  milch,  rations  for,  294-297  :  as  a 
food  producer,  338,  339;  fottening 
whilst  in  milk,  343,  344. 

Cow  manure,  value  of,  345,  346. 

Cow  mellon,  157. 

Cow  peas,  1.57. 

Crab  grass,  composition,  147. 

Crops,  ensilage,  226-229. 

Crowfoot  grass,  147. 

Cutting  and  handling  corn,  308-310. 

Cutting  crops  and  filling  silo,  231,  232. 

Cutting  fodder  for  sheep,  experiments, 
453-456  ;  and  cooking  corn  unh asked, 
306-808. 

Dairy  cattle,  317 ;  feeding,  329-331. 

Dairy  cows— Selecting,  318-321 ;  size  of, 
321-325  ;  contrasting  large  and  small, 
American,  321,  322  ;  Baron  Ockel's  ex- 
periments, 323,  324;  experiments  in 
Saxony,  324;  Villeroy's  experiments, 
325;  milk  ration  at  Eldena,  325,  326; 
feeding,  329,  330;  special  lor  milk, 
331-333;  German  experiments  on,  335; 
Zadock  Pratt's  experiments,  336,  337; 
fattening  whilst  in  milk,  343,  344  ; 
variety  of  food  for,  840,  341  ;  English 
practice  in  feeding,  341,  342;  Hors- 
fall's  experiments  with  six  cows,  344, 
345;  value  of  manure,  345,  346;  food 
of  production  for,  346-348  ;  American 
rations  for,  349-351 ;  water  for.  352- 
;i54 ;  variety  of  grasses  for,  355-359  : 
extra  food  on  pastures,  359,  360  ; 
water  remedies  in  diseases  of,  493- 
495 ;  garget,  495,  496  ;  puerperal  or 
milk  fever,  496-498;  brain  fever,  497; 
inflammation  of  the  lungs,  498. 
Darnell  grass,  148. 
Deer,  domesticated,  flavor  of  flesh,  127. 

Description  of  grasses,  149. 
Desmodium,  149. 

Development  of  cattle,  early,  130. 
Dextrine,  37. 


Digestion— Salivary,  45,  46  ;  gastric,  61 ; 

intestinal  61. 
Digestive  canal,  other  organs  annexed 

to,  64. 
Double  income  from  sheep,  405,  406. 
Duo-decagon  barn,  89. 
Early  maturity;  129  ;  considerations  in 
its  favor,  131 ,  132  ;  digestion  rapid  in 
young  animals,  129,  130;  effect  of  fnll 
feeding,  130 ;  profitable  feeding  before 
maturity,  1.32,  133. 
Economy  of  young  beef,  255-257  ;  table 

showing  law  of  growth,  258,  259. 
Elements,  organic,  19. 
Ensilage,  207-211:  analysis,  224;  prog- 
ress  in  United  States,  219.  220  r  cost 
of  ensilage,  221,  222:    as  a  complete 
ration,  223-226;  ensilage  crops,  226- 
229  ;  winter  rye,  227  ;  for  winter  feed- 
ing, 435-437 ;    storing    several  crops 
together,  229.  230  ;  millet,  peas,  oats, 
.  timothy  and  late  clover,  228 ;  sorghum 
cane,  229;  grasses  with  green  corn,  223; 
red  clover,  225;    analyses  of  fodder 
plants,  224 ;  transporting  ensilage  in 
casks,  502,  503  ;    succulent  food  pro- 
duces a  sound,  even  staple  of  wool., 
503  ;  Voelcker's  analysis  of  maize  and 
rye  ensilage,  505  ;    eflect  of  ensilage 
on  Havemeyer's  large  herd  of  Jerseys, 
508,    509 ;    rye    ensilage    superior  to 
corn,  507;  experiments  at  Houghton 
farm  with  ensilage  and  dry  food,  510, 
511  ;    milk  record  during    trial,  511  ; 
cattle  fatten  upon  grass  but  not  upon 
hay,  512,  513. 
English  view  of  the  cost  of  beef,  262-268. 
English  practice  in  the  dairy,  341,  342. 
English  food  rations  for  horses,  393,  394. 
English  rye  grass,  154. 
Engli«-h  sheep  feeding,  441-444. 
Esparsette,  155. 
Ewe,  milk  of,  138. 
Exchanging    water    for     fat,    and    vice 

versa,  25. 
Excretions— By  tissue,  lungs  and  skin, 
74;   experiment  by  Stohmann,  75  ;  of 
ash  constituents,  76,  77  ;    experiment 
by  Lawes,  80. 
Exercise  for  colts,  370,  371. 
Experiments  with  sheep,  tables,  417^120. 


550 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


Experiments— In  feeding  a  heifer,  333- 
335  ;  German,  335-337  ;  German,  feed- 
ing horses,  372-374  ;  feeding  pea-meal, 
383;  in  feeding  colts,  368,  3B9 ;  with 
roots,  grains  and  grass,  442-444  ;  in 
sheep  feeding,  454-456;  on  sheep 
manure,  422-424. 

Extra  food  to  fertilize  pastures,  359,  360. 

Farms,  garden  truck,  315,  316. 

Fats,  38,  39  ;  composition  of,  23  ;  how 
produced,  339,  340. 

Fatty  substances,  43. 

Fatten  cows  in  milk,  343-345. 

Fat  stock  shows,  258,  259 ;  growth  ac- 
cording to  age,  258-261. 

Feeding— Experiments,  343;  most  profit- 
able before  maturity,  132;  experi- 
ments, 133,  134 ;  too  concentrated 
food,  135,  136  ;  young  animals,  140- 
142;  under  six  months  old,  142;  in 
winter,  287,  288  ;  out-door,  288-291  ; 
corn-meal  alone,  135-137 ;  German 
standard  of,  292  ;  corn-crop,  306-308  ; 
in  summer,  277,  278  ;  green  crops  on 
the  laud,  425,  426  ;  regularity  in,  439, 
440;  young  lambs,  445-449  ;  average 
gain,  445  ;  on  small  farms,  315,  316  ; 
dairy  cattle,  329-331  ;  horses,  German 
experiments,  372-374  ;  horses,  stand- 
ard rations,  374-377  ;  horses  for  light 
work,  376  ;  horses,  practical  rations, 
377-380  ;  corn-meal  for  horses,  385- 
390  ;  corn-meal  fed  wet  or  dry,  385, 
386  ;  for  fast  work,  395-399  ;  colts  for 
full  development,  396,  397  ;  colls,  ex- 
periments, 369,  370 ;  whey  to  pigs, 
466^68 ;  feeding  corn-crop  without 
husking.  306-308  ;  feeding  green  crops 
upon  the  land,  422-425. 

Fermented  hay,  155. 

Fish  scrap.  164. 

Flesh,  without  bones,  28. 

Flesh,  flavor  of,  as  affected  by  food,  128. 

Flax-seed.  140-142,  235-238,  245,246,249, 
295,  296,  299,  314,  365,  390,  394,  395, 
397,  420. 

Flourens,  experiments  upon  stomachs 
of  sheep,  56. 

Foals,  weight  and  growth  of,  367-370; 
handling,  367,  371,  399. 

Fodder  vegetables,  elements,  30. 

Fodder  corn,  194, 195. 


Fodder,  cutting  and  cooking  for  sheep, 
453-456. 

Fodder  rye,  153. 

Fodder  vetch,  154. 

Fodder  oats,  154. 

Food  medicines,  501. 

Food  tables,  153-158;  comments  on  159. 

Food  for  muscles,  bones,  etc.,  43,  44. 

Food— Flavor  of  flesh  afi'ected  by, 
126-129 ;  nearest  to  milk  in  muscle- 
forming,  141 ;  value  per  ton,  clover 
hay,  average  meadow  hay,  corn  fod- 
der, oat  straw,  linseed-oil  cake,  wheat 
bran,  corn-meal  and  oats,  161 ;  how 
it  is  disposed  of  in  the  animal,  78 ; 
what  is  separated  as  manure,  78  ;  con- 
dimental,  analysis,  312-314  ;  respira- 
tory, 42-44 ;  tables  for  horses,  387,  389; 
tables  for  grain  rations,  390-392;  tables 
for  stage  horses,  391-394 ;  for  horses, 
371,372  ;  for  dam,  365-367  ;  bulky,  for 
horses,  380-384  ;  producer,  the  cow  as 
a,  338,  339;  how  disposed  of,  78;  of 
production,  346-349;  for  milk,  340, 
341;  grasses  as,  146-148,153-157;  waste 
products  as,  157,  158. 

Foxtail  grass,  147. 

Fowl  meadow  grass,  147. 

French  rye  grass,  154. 

Functions  of  the  stomach,  55,  56. 

Gama  grass  and  grama  grass,  152. 

Garden  truck  farms,  315,  316. 

Garget,  water  remedy,  495,  496. 

Gastric  juice,  49-61. 

Gastric  digestion,  61. 

German  feeding  standard,  cattle  rations, 
292;  horse  rations,  372-374. 

Glands,  salivary,  parotid,  maxillary, 
sub-lingual,  molar,  labial,  palatine,  46. 

Gluten  of  grains,  how  to  separate,  31, 
32. 

Grain,  ash,  constituents  of,  41. 

Grains,  analysis  of,  140. 

Grain,  cost  of  feeding,  264-266. 

Grasses  and  Fodder  Plants — Analysis 
of,  146-148,153-1.57;  desmodium,  Japan 
clover.  149;  Mexican  clover,satin  grass, 
Shrader's  grass,  150  ;  Bermuda  grass, 
the  crab  grasses,  Texas  millet,  quack 
grass,  151  ;  wire  grass,  gama  grass, 
grama  grass,  152  ;  money  value,  153- 
158  ;  comments  on  tables,  159,  160. 


AKALYTICAL  IXDEX. 


551 


Grain  and  seeds,  ash  constituents,  41. 

Granary,  place  for  it,  105. 

Grass,  as  a  part  of  ration  for  pigs,  468, 
469. 

Green  crops  for  sheep,  425-435. 

Green  crops,  feeding  ofl'  on  the  land, 
422-425. 

Green  fodder,  ash  constituents,  40. 

Green  rape,  155. 

Growing  cattle  for  beef,  275-278. 

Guinea  grass,  147. 

Hair,  composition,  23. 

Harris,  Joseph,  127. 

Hay,  ash  constituents,  40. 

Hay-tea  rations  lor  calf,  246,  247. 

Heat,  animal,  72,  73. 

Heart-beats,  pulse,  67-^9. 

Hemp-seed  cake,  157. 

Herds  grass  or  red  top,  357. 

Hog-cholera,  probable  cause,  462. 

Hibernating  pigs  in  winter,  484. 

Home-bred  cattle,  276,  277. 

Hoof,  horn,  hair,  23. 

Hop  clover,  153. 

Horse  chestnuts,  157. 

Horses— Number,  value,  13;  horses,  361; 
food  for  dam,  305-307  ;  food  for,  371, 
372  ;  oats  and  beans,  as  a  ration  for, 
381-382;  bulky  food,  380-384;  pea- 
meal,  as  a  ration  lor,  383,  384  ;  corn- 
meal  for,  384-390;  malt  sprouts  lor 
feed,  388,  389;  grain  rations  for,  390- 
392  ;  ration  for  stage,  391-394  ;  tables 
for  same,  392,  393  ;  oats  as  a  ration, 
barley,  397  ;  rye,  millet-meal,  pease, 
vetches,  398 ;  flax-seed  as  part  of 
ration,  398 ;  German  experiments, 
372-377  ;  standard  ration,  374 ;  rations 
for  light  work,  376 ;  practical  ra- 
tions, 377-380;  table  of  foods,  387; 
stable  feeding  during  winter  for,  393, 
394  ;  feeding  for  fast  work,  395-399  ; 
skim-milk  for  colts,  395  ;  water  treat- 
ment for  horses,  498;  wounds,  bruises, 
sprains  and  simple  cut  wounds,  498, 
499;  sprained  ankle,  499,  500;  treat- 
ment for  colic,  500 ;  food  medicines, 
501. 
Horsfall's,  Prof.,  ration,  343-345. 
How  to  introduce  soiling,  205,  207. 
How  to  feed  young  calf,  231,  235. 
How  to  feed  the  corn  crop,  l36,  306-308. 


How  fat  is  produced,  339,  340. 
How  to  feed  young  animals,  137-142. 
Hungarian  grass,  193 ;  composition,  153. 
Hurdle  feeding,  413-415. 
Hurdle  fence,  413,  414. 
Hydrogen  excreted,  76. 
Improper  feeding,  137. 
Improvement  of  the  corn  ration,  310. 
Intestinal  digestion,  61. 
Intestines— Of  ruminants,   63;    of  the 
pig,  63;  proportion  in  pig,  sheep  and 
ox,  64. 
Introduction,  13. 
Italian  millet,  193 ;    Italian  rye  grass, 

148-154. 
Japan  clover,  149,  150. 
Johnson's  grass,  147. 
Johnson,  Dr.  S.  W.,  292-294. 
June  grass  or  blue  grass,  147,  278,  357. 
Kidneys,  73. 

Kohl-rabi  leaves,  composition,  155. 
Lambs— Fat    composition,  26;    feeding 
young,  444-449  ;  gain  of  one  year,  445; 
Paulet's    experiments,   with   various 
kinds  of  food,  445-448 ;  experiments 
Avith  roots,  grain  and  grass,  441-444  ; 
etfect  of  age  and  weight  on  the  growth 
of,  452. 
Lands,  sheep  on  worn  out,  424,  425. 
Land,  feeding  green  crops  on  the,  422, 

426. 
Lawes,  Dr.,  experiments,  26,  67,  SO,  134, 

255,  263-268,  459. 
Linseed  and  cotton-seed  cake,  301-306. 
Linseed-oil  meal,  236, 241,  243, 244  ;  new 
process,  245,  267,  271,  272,  285, 295,  301, 
303-305,  311,  314,  333,  343,  350,  351,  354, 
359,  365,  366,  368,  369, 387,  389,  415,  420, 
429,  4.>4,  455.  464,  467. 
Liver,  64  ;  weight  and  secretions,  05. 
Long  barns,  new  way  to  build,  111-113. 
Lucerne,  146,  153,  189,  190. 
Lungs,  71. 

Lupine,  153 ;  straw  and  hulls,  156. 
Ilalt-sprouts,  158,  164;  for  horse  feed, 

388. 
Maize  fodder,  154. 
Managing  a  tlock  of  sheep,  437-439. 
Management  of  pastures,  278-281. 
Manufactured    products,  ash    constitu- 
ents, 41. 
Mare,  milk  of,  138. 


552 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


Manure— Value  of,  77  ;  in  proportion  to 
the  ration,  78,  79;  value  of,  from  dif- 
ferent foods,  80-S2;  from  fattening 
cattle,  266-268;  compensation  for  food 
in,  415-4-20 ;  from  sheep,  421-424. 

Marsh  grass,  147.  I 

Mastication,  45.  | 

Maturity,  earlj",   129  ;    experiments  of   ! 
profitable  feeding,  133.  j 

McFarland,  Dr.,  proposes   hibernating    \ 
pigs  in  winter,  4S4. 

Meadow  hay,  153. 

Meadow  foxtail,  148,  153. 

Meadow  soft  grass,  148,  153. 

Meat  scrap,  158,  1G4. 

Medicine,  food  as,  501. 

Method  of  feeding  pigs,  482,  483. 

Mexican  clover,  146,  150. 

Miles,  Dr.,  experiments  in  feeding  pigs. 
132,  464. 

Millet— Texas,  151;  common,  192,  193; 
for  pasture,  431,  432. 

Millet  meal,  398;  bran,  157. 

Miloh  Cows— Number,  value,  13  ;  water 
for,  352-355  ;  rations  for,  294. 

Milk— Condensed,  158;    quality  of,   de- 
pendent on  food,  128 ;    composition, 
cow,  mare  and  ewe.  138  ;  analysis  of 
ash  in   1,000  lbs.,  139;  eli'ect  of  soil-    j 
ing  upon  it,   176  ;  ration,  at  Eldena,    i 
table,   325-328 ;    special   feeding    for,    | 
3::Jl-335;    composition  of  6,000    lbs., 
3;i9 ;    variety  of  food    for,  340,  341 ; 
American  rations  for.  349-351  ;  ration 
for  colts.  363-365;  skimmed,  for  colts, 
395  ;  yielded  by  sows,  463, 464  ;  fever, 
water  remedy  for.  496-498. 

Milk-fever,  remedy  for,  496-498. 

Molasses  slump,  158. 

Mode  of  cutting  and  handling  corn, 
308-310. 

Mountain  oat  grass,  147. 

Mules,  number,  value,  13. 

Muscles,  composition  of,  22. 

New  w-ay  to  build  long  barns,  111-113. 

Nitrogen,  excretion  of,  74  ;  experiments 
on,  74,  75. 

Nostrils,  69. 

Nutrients— Nitrogenous,  31;  non-nitrog- 
enous, .34 ;  inorganic  combination  in 
plants  and  animals,  39 ;  in  foods,  40, 
41. 


Nasal  cavities,  70. 

Native  red-top  grass,  147. 

Nutrient,  .30. 

Oats,  397  ;  green  oats,  191 ;  fodder  oats 
composition,  154 ;  straw  and  hulls, 
156  ;  bran, 158. 

Oats  and  beans  for  horses,  381,  9^2. 

Oats  and  peas,  192. 

Objections  to  soiling— labor,  181. 

Octagon  barn,  88 ;  adapted  to  all-sized 
fiirms,  102  ;  cost  of  a  fifty-foot,  104  : 
eight- winged.  114. 

(Esophagean  demi-canal,  53. 

Offal,  25. 

Olive-oil  cake,  157. 

Orchard  grass,  148,  153,  189. 

Organic  elements,  19. 

Out-door  feeding,  288. 

Oxen,  ha  I  d-worked,  rations,  305,  306. 

Ox,  half-fat,  fat,  composition,  26. 

Palm-nut  cake,  l."58. 

Palm  seed,  157. 

Palpitation,  69. 

Pancreas,  its  secretions,  66. 

Parsnip  leaves,  composition,  154. 

Pasture  grass,  rich,  154. 

Pastures  for  Dairy  Cows— Variety  ol 
grasses.  356-359;  management  of,  278  - 
281 ;  temporary,  281-^83 ;  peas,  as  a 
crop  for,  429-431 ;  millet  for  pasture, 
431 ;  grasses,  blue  grass  or  June  gi  ass, 
wire  grass,  278 ;  rough-stalked  mead- 
ow grass,  meadow  fescue,  sheep  fes- 
cue, orchard  grass,  279  ;  red-top  or 
herds  grass,  sweet-scented  vernal 
grass,  blue-joint,  broom  grass,  buffalo 
grass,  280;  extra  food  to  fertilize. 
359,  369. 

Peas  in  bloom,  153. 

Peas  and  oats,  146,  192,  228. 

Pea-meal  as  a  ration,  383,  384,  398  ;  pea 
bran,  hulls,  157. 

Peas  as  a  pasture  crop,  429-431. 

Pectin  substances,  37-39. 

Pectoral  cavity,  70. 

Peritoneum,  48. 

Peyerian  gland,  63. 

Pig— Intestines  of,  63;  store,  fat,  com 
position,  26;  in  winter,  470-472;  corn- 
meal  for,  465-469  ;  cob-meal  for,  472- 
474;  selecting  for  fattening,  486,487; 
weight  at  birth,  463. 


ANALYTICAL   INDEX. 


553 


Philosophy  of  cooking  food,  487-490. 
Phosphoric  acid  excreted,  76,  77. 
Pigeon  grass,  147-153. 
Plantain,  146. 

Plants,  natural  function  of,  19. 
Potato  tops,  composition,  155,  156. 
Poppy-seed  cake,  157. 
Potash  excreted,  77. 
Production,  food  of,  346-349. 
Products   manufactured,  ash  constitu- 
ents, 41. 
Profitable  feeding  must  be  done  before 

maturity,  132. 
Progress  of  ensilage  in  United  States, 

219,  220. 
Protein,  32. 
Ptyalin,  46. 
Puerperal  or  milk  fever,  water  remedy, 

496-498. 
Pulse— How  to   find    it,   67;    diflTerent 

kinds,  68. 
Pumpkiu-seed  cake,  elc,  157. 
Quack  grass,  147,  151,  154. 
Quality  of  young  beef,  253,  254. 
Rack  for  cattle,  199. 
Rack  for  sheep.  124. 

Rape,  155-158,  224,  433-435  ;  straw  and 
hulls,  156 ;  rape  cake,  158  ;  rape  meal, 
158. 
Ration,  30,    for  cattle,    292,  293;    for 
milch    cows,  294-297,    for    fattening 
cattle,  304,  ;i05;  for  oxen  at  hard  work, 
305,  306  ,  for  milk,  at  Eldeua,  325-328; 
for    milk    cow,    English,  342,    Prof. 
Horsfall's,  343-345  ;  for  milk,  Ameri- 
can, 349-351  ;    of  milk   for  colts,  364, 
365,  standard,  for  feeding  horses,  374- 
377;  practical,  377-380.  for  sheep,  415; 
variety  of,  436 ;  for  young  pigs,  464- 
466  ;  grass  as  part  of  the,  468,  469. 
Red  clover,  146,  153-155,  188,  225,  357. 
Heed  meadow  grass,  147. 
Respiratory  foods,  42^14  ;  products,  76. 
Respiration,  69  ;  principles  of,  42  ;  food 

of,  43. 
Rfinastication,  47. 
Rice  meal,  composition,  158;  rice  bran, 

158. 
Reticulum,  51,  58. 
Ribwort  plantain,  116. 
Roots,  ash  constituents.  41. 
Roots  for  slicop  feeding,  432,  433. 


Roots,  grains  and  grass,  experiments, 
441-444. 

Rumination,  58 ;  conditions  essential  to, 
60. 

Ruminants,  intestines  of,  63. 

Running  corn  through  a  cutter,  307. 

Rutabagas,  composition,  155. 

Rye,  winter,  186-188,  398,  426,  427. 

Rye  grass,  English,  153  ;  Italian,  153. 

Rye  fodder,  153 ;  straw  and  chaff,  156. 

Rye  bran,  157  ;  refuse,  158. 

Saliva,  45;  ptyalin,  46. 

Salivary  glands,  46. 

Satin  grass,  Shrader's  grass,  150. 

Seeds,  ash  constituents,  41. 

SeradeUa,  153. 

Self-cleaning  stable,  97-101. 

Sex-decagon  barn,  89. 

Sheep— Number,  value,  14  ;  proportion 
of  parts,  27 ;  store,  half-fat,  fat,  extra 
fat,  composition,  26,  29 ;  rack,  123, 
124  ;  shelter,  125;  husbandry,  400-402; 
feeding  in  New  Jersey,  402-404  ;  prof- 
its of  feeding,  403  ;  lambs  raised  for 
market,  404 ;  double  income,  fleece 
and  lambs,  405,  406  ;  early  maturity, 
406^08  ;  growth  in  early  lambs,  407, 
408 ;  selection  of  sheep  for  breeding, 
408-411  ;  Bakewell  improving  the  Lei- 
cester, 409,  410;  result  of  crossing 
Southdowns  and  Cotswolds,  410,  411  ; 
summer  feeding  of  small  flocks,  411- 
413;  hurdle  feeding,  413-415;  an  ex- 
periment in,  422-424;  fertilizing  the 
field,  414  ;  sheep  ration,  415  ;  compen- 
sation for  food  m  manure,  415-420; 
amount  of  food  elements  in  manure, 
416  ;  table  of  Dr.  Wolfl"s  experiments 
and  others,  417-4;::0;  value  of  solid 
and  liquid  excrement.  421  ;  on  worn- 
out  lands,  424, 425;  feeding  green  crops 
on  the  land,  425,  426 ,  winter  rye  as  a 
sheep  pasture,  426,  427 ;  winter  vetch, 
427-429 ;  peas  as  a  pasture  crop,  429- 
431;  millet  for  pasture,  431,  432;  roots 
for  sheep  feeding,  432,  433  ,  rape,  433- 
435  ,  ensilage  for  winter  feeding,  435- 
437  ;  managing  a  flock,  437-439. 
Sheep  fescue,  147,  153. 
Size  of  dairy  cows,  321-.325. 


554 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


Sheep  Feeding— Regularity  in,  439  ;  En- 
glish, 441-444;  experiments  with  roots, 
grains  and  grass,  441-444;  feeding 
young  lambs,  444-449 ;  average  gain, 
445  ;  German  experiments,  449-453 ; 
table  of  amount  of  food,  450  ;  experi- 
ments by  Stohmann,  with  table,  450, 
451  ;  effect  of  age  and  weight  on  the 
growth  of  a  lamb,  452 ;  table  per  100 
lbs.  live  weight,  453 ;  experiments  in 
cutting  and  cooking  fodder  for,  453; 
experiments,  454-456  ;  cost  of  steam- 
ing, 456,  457. 

Silos,  212,  213  ;  plan  of  silo,  213  ;  triple 
silo,  214;  building  the  silo,  215.  216  ; 
preparing  the  concrete,  216-218;  cut- 
ting crop  and  filling  silo,  231,  232  ; 
sorghum,  195;  storing  several  ensilage 
crops  together,  229,  230. 

Skimmed  milk,  composition,  158. 

Skin— Composition,  23  ;  respiratory  ac- 
tion, 71  ;  excretions  of,  72. 

Skim-milk  ration  for  calves,  236,  240, 
336  ;  for  colt,  .364, 395;  composition,  158. 

Smut  grass,  147. 

Soda  excreted,  77. 

Soiling,  167,  168  ;  saving  land,  169-171  ; 
saving  fences,  171,  172  ;  saving  food, 
172,  173  ;  saving  manure,  174  effect 
upon  health  and  condition,  174,  175 , 
effect  of  soiling  upon  milk,  176-178 ; 
effect  on  meat  production,  179-181  ; 
objections  to  soiling— labor,  181,  182; 
an  experiment,  182.  183  ;  cost  of  labor 
for  100  head  184-186  ,  horses,  197, 
198 ;  cattle,  198-200  ;  cows,  200-202  ; 
sheep,  202-204 ,  exterminates  weeds,' 
205,  206  ;  how  to  introduce  it,  205,  206; 
winter  soiling,  207 ;  system  for  swine, 
469,  470. 

Soiling  Crops— Winter  rye,  186, 187,  426; 
red  clover,  188;  orchard  grass,  lucerne, 
189, 190 ;  timothy  and  large  clover,  190; 
alsike  clover  and  timothy,  green  oats, 
191,  192;  peas  and  oats,  common  mil- 
let, 192,  193  ;  Hungarian  grass,  Italian 
millet,  195,  vetch,  fodder  corn,  194, 
195  ;  sorghum,  195  ;  how  to  use  green 
crops,  195,  196. 

Special  feeding  for  milk,  331-335. 

Sprained  ankle,  treatment  for,  499. 

Sorghum,  153. 


Squash-seed,  rind,  157. 

Spurry,  154. 

Spleen,  66. 

Stable— Self-cleaning,  platform,  fig.  10, 
97,  98  ;  grating,  figs.  11,  12  and  13,  99- 
101  ;  self-cleaning,  for  pigs,  480.  481. 

Starch,  dissolved  by  boiling,  36,  37. 

Standard  ration  for  feeding  horses,  374- 
377. 

Steamed  food,  296. 

Stock  barns,  84  ;  economy  of,  85  ;  form 
of,  87. 

Stock  industry,  capital  invested,  14. 

Stock  foods,  143  ;  nutritive  ingredients, 
144;  Dr.  Collier's  table  of  analyses 
146-148;  Dr.  Wolff's  table  of  food- 
analyses,  153-158;  comments  on  tables, 
159,  160 ;  tables  of  food  values,  161 ; 
waste  products,  162;  corn-starch  feed, 
brewer's  grain,  163;  malt  sprouts, 
meat  scrap,  fish  scrap,  164. 

Stomach— Of  solipeds,  47  ;  and  intes- 
tines, illustration,  48.  of  ruminant-, 
and  their  functions,  49,  55.  56;  I'ri)!. 
Law  on,  50;  first,  50,  51 ;  second,  51,  52; 
ocsophagean  demi-canal,  53  ;  third,  53; 
fourth,  55  ;  external  appearance,  54 ; 
internal  appearance, 57  ;  use  of  third 
and  fourth  stomachs,  60;  proportion 
in  dilferent  animais,  64. 

Stowell's  evergreen  corn,  360. 

Straw,  ash  constituents,  41;  composi- 
tion of  different  straws.  155,  156; 
meadow  hay  compared,  16^. 

Study  the  nature  of  the  animal  we  feed, 
135 ;  corn  should  not  be  fed  alone,  135, 
141,142.  385,  386. 

Sugar-beet  cake,  157. 

Sugars,  cane,  grape  and  fruit,  34-37. 

Sunflower  cake,  composition,  157. 

Swedish  clover,  Alsike.  153. 

Sweet  vernal  grass,  148. 

Swine— Proportion  of  parts,  27  ;  num- 
ber, value,  14  ;  composition,  29  ;  as 
grass  eating  animals.  137 ;  early 
maturity  in,  132-134;  products  of 
the  pig  exported,  458-460 ;  care  of 
breeding  sows,  461,  462;  clover  and 
grass,  proper  food,  461,  472;  millf 
richer  than  the  cow's,  462  ;  weight  of 
pigs  at  birth,  463  ;  milk  yield  by  dam, 
463, 464 ;  ration  for  young  pig,  464-466; 


ANALYTICAL   INDEX. 


555 


Swine— Feeding  whey  to  pigs,  466-468  ; 
grass  as  a  part  of  the  ration,  468,  469; 
soiling  system  for  swine,  469,  470;  the 
pig  in  winter,  470-472 ;  the  old  storing 
system,  471 ;  cob-meal  as  a  pig  food, 
472-474 ;  swine-house,  474-479 ;  an- 
other plan  of  swine-house,  479,  480  ; 
a  self-cleaning  pen  for,  480,  481  ;  cook- 
ing hog  food,  481-484;  no  storing 
period,  484,  485;  fattening  period,  485; 
486;  selecting  pigs  for  fattening,  487; 
philosophy  of  cooking  food,  487-490; 
will  it  pay  to  cook  for  hogs,  490-492  ; 
experiments  in  cooking,  488-490. 

Table— Of  food  supply  to  six  cows  for 
191  days,  and  composition,  345 ;  of 
milk  rations,  350,  351  ;  of  food  for 
horse,  387-389. 

Tall  panic  grass,  147. 

Tall  red-top,  147. 

Temperature,  effect  in  feeding  animals, 
84,  85,  287,  291. 

Temporary  pastures,  281-283. 

Texas  millet,  147,  151. 

Thorax,  70. 

Timothy  and  large  clover,  148, 190;  tim- 
othy, 153. 

Trachea,  69. 

Trefoil,  1.53,  155. 

Trypsin,  66. 

Upland  grasses,  153. 

Urinary  organs,  73  ;  ureters,  kidneys, 
bladder,  urethra,  74. 

Uses  of  water  in  diseases  of  cattle,  493- 
495 ;  garget,  fever  and  inflammation, 
494. 

Value  of  manure,  77,  345,  .346,  415, 425. 

Value  of  manure  of  fattening  cattle, 
267-269. 

Value  of  cow  manure,  345, 340 ;  of  sheep 
manure,  421-425. 

Variety  of  food  for  milk,  340, 341. 

Variety  of  grasses,  355-359. 

Vernal  sweet-scented  grass,  146,  153, 
280,  3.58. 

Vegetable  albuminoids,  33. 

Vetch,  146,  153,  194,  398,  427^20  ;  chaff 
and  straw,  156. 


Walnut  cake,  composition,  157. 

Waste  products,  162 ;  corn-starch  foods, 
brewer's  grains,  163;  malt  sprouts, 
meat  scrap,  fish  scrap,  164,  165;  in 
cattle  rations,  299-301. 

Water— Composition,  19;  for  milch  cow, 
352-355 ;  remedies,  493 ;  uses  of,  in 
the  diseases  of  cattle,  49.3-495 ;  gar- 
get, 495,  496;  puerperal  or  milk  fever, 
496-498;  treatment  for  horses,  498; 
wounds,  bruises,  sprains  and  simple 
cut  wounds,  498,  499;  sprained  ankle, 
499,  500;  treatment  for  colic,  500; 
food  medicines,  501. 

Water  grass,  146. 

Weight  and  growth  of  foals,  367-370. 

Weight  of  pigs  at  birth,  463. 

What  age  for  beef,  247-249. 

Wheat,  bran,  middlings,  analysis,  150, 
157 ;  refuse,  1.58. 

Whey  rations  for  the  calf  (analyses),  242- 
246 ;  loss  of  whey  estimated,  244;  I.  II. 
Wanzer's  experiments,  246. 

Whey,  feeding  to  pigs,  466-468  ;  compo- 
sition of,  158. 

White  mustard,  154. 

Whole  cost  of  the  bullock,  273,  274. 

Wild  oat  grass,  147. 

Winter  rye,  186,  187. 

Winter  soiling.  207-211. 

Wire  grass,  153,  278. 

Wood  grass,  147. 

Woody  fibre,  effect  of  heat  and  acid  upon 
it,  35. 

Wolff's  tables,  153-158 ;  comments  ou 
the  tables,  159. 

Wool,  composition.  23. 

Wounds,  treatment  for,  498. 

Young  auimsils,  how  to  feed  them,  137* 
care  in  substituting  other  food  «br 
milk,  139. 

Young  calf,  how  to  feed  it,  234. 

Youatt's  ration  for  work  hor.^es,  371, 
372. 

Young  pigs,  feeding  too  much  corn,  461 ; 
rations  for.  464-466. 

Young  foal,  weight  and  growth  of,  367- 
370  ;  handling,  367,  371,  399. 


556 


FEEDING   ANIMALS. 


INDEX   OF   APPENDIX   TO   THIRD   EDITION, 
REFERENCES. 


WITH    OTHER 


A  few  definitions,  S34. 

Albuminoids  definition,  534. 

Alfieda,  test  of,  543. 

Analyzed  ratiocs.  .543-4. 

Ancient  use  of  silo,  212. 

Artichokes,  156, 

Ash  constituents  of  plants,  39-41. 

Author's  experiment,  521. 

Bakewell's  experiment  on  long  horns, 
520. 

Bakewell,  409. 

Barns— Building  stables  under  old,  535. 

Beef— Cost  ot  good,  528. 

Belle  of  Patterson,  test  of,  543. 

Boxing  for  concrete  wall,  536. 

Bran,  157. 

Breed— Improving  by  feeding,  518. 

Building  stables  under  old  barns,  535. 

Butter— Improvement  of  dairy  cows 
for,  637. 

Butter  tests,  544-5. 

Buttermilk,  158. 

Calf— Flaxseed  to  prevent  scouring,  238. 

Calves— Flaxseed  gruel  for,  235. 

Carbohydrates— Definitions,  534. 

Cattle,  wild,  288. 

Cattle,  fastening  in  stable,  514. 

Chain  for  fastening  cows  in  stable,  516. 

Concrete  wall  boxing,  336. 

Comfort  of  cows  in  stable,  514. 

Cost  of  production,  260-531. 

Cost,  improved  stables,  small,  537. 

Cows,  improvement  of  dairy,  537. 

Cow,  Mary  Anne,  of  St.  Lambert,  test 
ot.  540-2. 

Cow,  Lesbie,  test  of,  540-2. 

Cow,  Gold  Trinket,  test  of,  543. 

Cow,  Miss  Willie  Jones,  test  of,  543. 

Cow,  Alfieda,  test  of,  543. 

Cow,  Maggie  of  St.  Lambert,  test  of, 
543. 

Cow,  Fear  Not,  test  of,  543. 

Cow,  Moth  of  St.  Lambert,  test  of,'543. 

Cow— Com.,  test  of,  543. 

Cow,  Olies,  Lady  Teazle,  test  of,  543. 

Cow,  Belle  of  Patterson,  test  of,  543. 

Cows,  salt  to  excite  thirst  in,  353. 

Cylinder,  mixing,  524-5. 

Dairy  cows,  improvement  of,  for  but- 
ter, 537. 

Definitions,  a  few,  534. 

Description  of  steam-boxes,  525-6. 

Description  of  rotary  steam-boxes, 
526-7. 

Doubling  yield  of  milk,  522-3. 

Efl"ect  of  feeding  upon  quality  milk,  540. 

Effect  of  feeding  scrubs,  521-522. 

Eff"ect  of  liberal  feeding,  519. 

Experiment,  Bakewell's  long  horn,  520. 

Experiment,  Bakewell's  sheep,  409. 

Experiment  by  John  D.  Gillette,  5-32. 

Experiment  by  Hr.  I.  Groff,  533 

Experiment  with  scrub  cows,  539. 

Experiment  of  Princess  2d,  540. 


Fastening  cattle  in  stable,  514. 

Fat  stock  show,  summary  of,  529-30. 

Fear  Not,  test  of,  543. 

Feeding,  improvement  of  breed  by,  518. 

Feeding,  effect  of  liberal,  519. 

Feeding,  eS"ect  on  quality  milk,  540. 

Flaxseed  gruel  for  calves,  235. 

Food  and  production,  illustration  of, 

541. 
Food,  preparing  for  a  large  stock,  523. 
Gain  in  periods  (table),  5.30. 
Good  beef  at  24  months,  533. 
Good  beef,  cost  of,  .528-9. 
Gold  Trinket,  test  of,  543. 
Greatest  yield  may  not  be  the  cheap- 
est, 540. 
Gradual  increase  of  ration  for  butter, 

538. 
Grain  ration,  521. 
Grasses,  list  of,  for  pasture,  281-3. 
Heat,  animal  food  for,  485-6. 
Hay  loader.  184. 

How  to  make  a  warm  barn,  536-7. 
Illustration  of  food  and  production,  541. 
Improvement  of  breed  by  feeding,  518. 
Improvement  of  dairy  cows  for  butter, 

537. 
Increase  of  ration  gradual,  538. 
Influence  of  food  in  establishing  breeds, 

523. 
Is    the   greatest   yield    the   cheapest, 

540-1. 
Liberal  feediug,  the  effect  of,  519. 
Lesbie,  test  of  the  Jersey  cow,  542. 
Maggie  of  St.  Lami  ert,  test  of,  543. 
Mary  Anne  of  St.  Lambert,   test  of, 

540. 
Milk,  effect  of  feeding  on,  quality  of, 

540. 
Mineral  constituents  of  plants,  39-41. 
Miss  Willie  Joues,  test  of,  543. 
Mixing  cylinder,  524. 
Moth  of  St.  Lambert,  test  of,  543. 
Old  barns,  building  stables  under,  535. 
Olies,  Lady  Teazle,  543. 
Pastures,  kinds  of  extra  food  for,  359 
Pig-pen,  self-cleaning,  481. 
Preparing  food  for  large  stock,  523. 
Preventing     cows     from      disturbing 

others,  515. 
Princess  2d,  experiment,  540j-2. 
Production,  cost  of,  531-2. 
Production,  illustration  of  food  of,  541. 
Proportion  of  food  elements  in  manure, 

416. 
Pumpkins,  157. 
Pumpkin-seed  cake,  157. 
Quality  of  milk,   eflect  of  feeding  on, 

540. 
Ration,  gradual  increase  of,  538. 
Rations  analyzed,  543-4. 
Ration  of  Princess  2d  daily,  544. 
Ration  of  Mary  Anne  of  St.  Lambert, 

daily,  544-5. 


ANALYTICAL   INDEX. 


557 


Kation  of  cow  Lesbie.  545-6. 
Rotary  steam-boxes,  526-7. 
Saving  food  by  watering  in  stable,  518. 
Scouring,  flaxseed  for  in  calves,  238. 
Scrubs,  eflect  of  feeding  on,  521-2. 
Scrub  cowp.  experiment  with,  539. 
Skill  in  feeding  more  important,  518. 
Snap  to  hold  cow  in  stable,  514. 
Special  feeding,  520. 
Stables,  building  under  old  barns,  585 
Stables,  light  in,  1-20. 
Staples  for  fastening  cows.  515. 
Steam  boxes,  description,  525-6. 
Steam  boxes,  rotary,  526. 
Steer^.  tables  of  fat  stock  show,  5.30. 
Stock,  preparing  food  for  a  large.  523-4. 
Summary  of  cattle  at  live  stock  shows 
according  to  age,  630. 


Summary  of  8  fat  stock  shows,  530. 

Sunflower  seed,  com.,  157. 

Sweet  potato,  com.,  156. 

Tables  of  steers  at  fat  stock  show,  530. 

Table  of  rations  for  butter  cows,  544-€. 

Test  of  butter  cows,  540.  542,  543,  544. 

The  cost  of  good  beef,  528-29. 

Value  of  liquid  and  solid  manure,  421. 

Wall,  boxing  for  concrete,  536. 

Watering  cattle  in  stable,  516. 

Watering  cattle  in  stable,  how  it  saves 

food,  518. 
Watering  trousrh,  516. 
Watering  trough,  how  covered,  518. 
What  does  good  beef  cost,  528-9. 
Yams,  com.,  156. 


SELF-CLEANING  STABLES. 


All  dairymen  have  felt  the  necessity  of  some  device  that  should  lessen  the  daily 
labor  of  cleaning  the  stable,  and  especially  that  should  succeed  in  keeping  the 
cow  clean,  a  very  necessary  requisite  to  pure  and  wholesome  fnilk.  There  have 
been  various  plans  of  using  a  gutter  behind  cows  or  cattle;  in  all  of  them  the  cow 
was  liable  to  get  soiled. 


Fig.  2. 

Explanation.  —  A,  iron 
anchor,  to  hold  plank  on 
wall:  B,  grated  floor;  C\ 
Concrete;  D,  manger;  E,  sill. 


THE    PLATFORM 


We  are  about  to  describe,  invented  by  Prof.  E.  W.  Stewart,  has  been  in  use  in 
his  octagonal  barn  basement  for  8  years,  accommodating  40  cows,  keeping  them 
clean.  This  platform  made  is  represented  by  Fig.  1,  page  517.  The  wooden  part 
of  the  platform,  marked  B,  is  situated  next  the  manger,  3  feet  4  inches  wide, 
with  stanchions,  with  loose  tie  3  feet  10  inches.  Behind  this  is  the  iron  grating 
(3  feet  two  inches  wide  by  3  feet  3  inches  deep),  resting  on  the  back  wall  of 
manure  gutter,  and  secured  to  the  sill  of  the  wooden  platform  in  front,  bj-  eye- 
bolts  so  as  to  turn  up,  to  clean  the  gutter  when  full.  The  gutter  or  receptacle  for 
manure  is  under  this  iron  grating,  and  is  made  of  such  depth  as  is  desired,  usually 
about  2  feet.  This  depth  is  convenient  for  shoveling  out  the  manure.  This  res- 
ervoir, which  will  hold  all  liquid  manure,  may  be  made  of  concrete  or  brick,  well 
plastered  with  two  coats  of  Portland  cement  on  the  inside,  or  (which  is  just  as 
good,  and  will  last  for  years)  2  inch  Norway  pine.  The  gutter,  3  feet  wide,  will 
hold  one  yard  under  each  animal.  The  iron  joists  are  placed  18i^  inches  apart; 
across  these  at  right  angles  are  laid  wrought  iron  bars  one  and  a  half  inches 
wide,  securely  fastened. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  animal  stands  with  the  fore  feet  upon  the  plank,  and 
the  hind  feet  upon  the  flat  iron  bars.  The  droppings  fall  directly  through  the 
openings  into  the  gutter  below,  when  the  manure  is  thin;  and  in  winter  when  dry 
food  is  given,  the  droppings  are  trodden  through  by  the  hind  feet.  The  cow  stands 
across  the  bars,  and  has  always  two  bars  to  stand  upon.  Cows  that  have  stood  on 
this  grating  for  8  years  have  been  very  healthy,  no  trouble  with  the  feet. 


This  gratiug  is  made  of  refined  wrought  iron  (weij,'hs  100  lbs.  per  cow),  and  its 
durability  must  be  very  great.  It  is  built  in  sections  for  ttvo  or  thi-ee  cows, 
according  to  convenience,  allowing  3  feet  2  inches  in  width  and  3  feet  3  inches  in 
depth  to  each  cow;  strong  enough  to  hold  cattle  of  any  weight,  all  ready  to  be 
screwed  by  the  eye-bolts  to  the  wooden  platform;  will  be  shipped  at  $6  per  cow. 
This  low  price  is  now  made  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  it  among  dairymen. 
We  make  grates  of  any  special  width  that  is  desired,  charging  in  proportion  over 
3  feet  2  inches. 

MANURE. 

Some,  when  first  examining  it,  suppose  that  this  quantity  of  manure  must  nec- 
essarily give  off  a  worse  odor  than  an  ordinary  stable,  but  this  is  an  error,  as  the 
manure  in  the  receptacle  is  undisturbed  and  fermentation  very  slow.  It  takes 
less  land  plaster,  or  dry  muck,  to  keep  this  manure  from  smelling  than  to  keep  a 
stable  sweet  that  is  cleined  every  day. 

POINTS   FOR   THE   SELF-CLEANING   PLATFORM. 

First.  It  keeps  the  cows  clean— a  very  difficult  thing  to  do  with  any  other 
stable,  even  with  a  moderate  amount  of  bedding— whilst  this  requires  no  bed- 
ding. 

Second.  It  saves  all  the  ordinary  labor  of  cleaning  stable,  which  cannot  be 
estimated  at  less  than  $2  per  cow  per  year,  and  this  would  pay  the  whole  cost  in 
three  years. 

Third.  It  completely  saves  all  the  liquid  manure,  or  more  than  double  the 
value  of  the  manure,  and  the  value  of  this  liquid  manure  is  worth  the  whole  cost 
of  the  grating  in  a  single  year. 

Fourth.  The  saving  in  bedding,  in  villages  and  cities,  will  fully  pay  for  the  grat- 
ing every  year. 

Fifth.  It  prevents  wholly  the  rotting  of  the  wood  work  of  a  stable,  as  the 
liquid  falls  through  the  grating  and  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  floor,  joists 
or  sills.  It  often  costs  more  to  re-sill  a  barn,  where  the  liquids  of  the  stable  have 
rotted  it,  than  this  grating  costs. 

Sixth.  This  self-cleaning  platform  may  be  used  in  any  stable  which  docs  not 
freeze,  and  all  stables  may  be  repaired  so  as  not  to  freeze,  besides  no  dairyman 
can  afford  to  keep  cows  in  a  cold  stable. 

Seventh.  This  eelf-cleaning  stable  is  most  admirably  adapted  to  the  Ensilage 
system  of  feeding,  which  gives  succulent  food  the  year  through.  Winter  dairying 
will  be  promoted  by  this  system,  because  the  same  sHcculent  food  may  be  given 
in  winter  as  summer,  and  this  grating  will  keep  the  cows  clean,  however  thin  the 
manure. 

Eighth.  The  undersigned,  sole  agents  and  manufacturers  of  this  self-cleaning 
stable,  have  adapted  it  to  pig-pens,  and  with  this  pigs  are  kept  absolutely  clean. 

Shall  be  glad  to  hear  from  you.    Will  give  you  further  special  instructions 

about  putting  it  in  your  stable  when  you  give  us  a  description  of  your  barn  and 

stable. 

Address, 

Lake  View,  Erie  Co.,  N.  Y. 


i^Ei^E^En^TCEs 


The  following  parties  referred  to,  might  give  many  more: 

E.  T.  Hatdbn,  of  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  writes  with  reference  to  the  form,  repre- 
sented in  figure  2: 

"  Dear  Sir  :— In  regard  to  the  '  self-cleaning  floor '  purchased  of  you,  I  can  say 
that  I  am  more  than  pleased  ^ith  it.  I  think  I  save  enough  in  bedding  and  labor 
of  cleaning,  besides  the  manure  saved,  in  one  year  to  pay  for  it.  I  absorb  all  the 
urine  with  muck,  and  this  prevents  all  odor  and  turns  the  muck  into  excellent 
manure.  I  do  not  think  that  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  manure  adheres  to  my  eight 
cows  and  heifers  in  a  month.    I  would  not  try  to  do  without  this  grating  again." 

Edwin  Allen,  of  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  writes: 

"  Have  had  my  sixteen  cows  on  your  grating  many  months,  and  find  it  only  nec- 
essary to  clean  gutter  once  a  month.  It  is  a  splendid  arrangement  to  save  all  the 
manure,  which  I  cart  directly  to  the  field  before  the  valuable  salts  are  washed  out 
by  rains.  The  cowa  do  not  object  to  standing  or  lying  on  it.  They  stand  and  get 
up  much  easier  from  this  floor  being  level,  instead  of  slanting,  as  in  the  old  way. 
I  use  plaster  and  sweepings  from  a  button  factory  as  an  absorbent  and  deodorizer 
for  manure.  Shall  order  grating  for  another  row  of  cows  next  season."  [He 
has  since  ordered  lor  sixteen  more  cows.] 

3Ir.  Charles  W.  Foster,  Fostoria,  Ohio,  writes: 

"I  find  your  self-cleaning  grating  gives  me  clean  cows,  a  clean  stable,  and  in 
fact  is  all  I  expected,  and  more  too." 

Hon.  Lewis  F.  Allen,  of  Buff"alo,  N.  Y.,  speaking  of  these  self-cleaning prateg 
in  the  Country  Gentleman,  says  : 

"  I  have  recently  put  these  grates  into  my  own  stables  for  fifty-two  cows, 
greatly  to  my  satisfaction,  and  I  regard  ihem  as  a  decided  improvement  over  any 
other  plan  I  have  ever  seen.  The  cows  stand  with  their  hind  feet  upon  these 
grates,  without  any  bedding,  yet  keeping  as  clean  as  in  a  summer  pasture.  They 
lie  down  comfortably  and  warm,  and  chew  their  cuds  as  contented  as  if  on  beds 
of  straw." 

Mr.  John  C.  Sheblet,  Anchorage,  Ky.,  writes: 

"  In  reply  to  yours  of  Sept.  29th,  1884,  would  say  that  I  have  been  intending  for 
some  time,  before  receiving  your  letter,  to  write  and  express  my  perfect  satisfac- 
tion with  the  grates.  I  would  not  be  without  them  for  any  reasonable  amount.  I 
do  not  think  they  can  be  improved.  There  is  but  one  objection  (and  that  theo- 
retical) that  I  have  ever  heard  offered  against  them,  that  is,  that  they  would  be 
cold  for  cattle  to  stand  and  lie  on  in  cold  weather,  but  I  have  never  been  able  to 
discover  any  bad  effects  from  them,  although  last  winter  was  very  severe,  and  my 
stable  rather  open.  I  will  take  great  pleasure  in  recommending  the  grates  to 
any  one  that  you  m^y  refer  to  me,  as  I  feel  that  I  should  be  doing  them  a  favor, 
and  paying  a  debt  of  gratitude  I  owe  you  for  the  invention." 

Dr.  J.  M.  Meter,  Danville,  Ky.,  says: 

"  I  am  abundantly  satisfied  with  the  use  of  your  grates.  I  have  published  a 
little  article  of  their  merits,  and  Kentucky  will  use  them  in  the  future."  [Dr. 
Meyer  ordered  grates  in  1882,  and  has  ordered  twice  since.] 

Mr.  J.  W.  Barnes,  Memphis,  Mo.,  whites: 

"The  self-cleaning  grates,  bought  of  you  last  May,  have  been  in  use  continu- 
ously since  September,  1883,  and  have  worked  very  satisfactorily." 

Mr.  J.  H.  BosARD,  Grand  Forks,  Dak.,  writes: 

"  The  self-cleaning  grate  I  purchased  of  you  in  May,  1882,  for  three  cows,  has 
been  in  use  continuously  since,  to  my  great  satisfaction." 

Mr.  C.  p.  Coggeshall,  Chicago,  111.,  writes: 

"  It  would  do  you  good  to  see  how  like  a  charm  my  new  improvements  work 
with  your  self-cleaning  grates.  I  have  not  cleaned  the  ofl"al  from  the  barn 
for  three  weeks,  and  will  not  need  to  for  one  to  come.  It  saves  me  their  full  cost 
in  labor  twice  yearly." 

Mr.  S.  R.  Harper,  Meadville,  Pa.,  says: 

"  I  have  the  grates  I  bought  of  you  in,  and  cows  on  them,  and  they  prove  satis- 
factory in  all  respects." 


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